1. Wertheim HF, Melles DC, Vos MC, van Leeuwen W, van Belkum A, Verbrugh HA, Nouwen JL. 2005. The role of nasal carriage in Staphylococcus aureus infections. Lancet Infect Dis5:751–762. doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(05)70295-4. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
2. Coates R, Moran J, Horsburgh MJ. 2014. Staphylococci: colonizers and pathogens of human skin. Future Microbiol9:75–91. doi: 10.2217/fmb.13.145. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
3. Verhoeven PO, Gagnaire J, Botelho-Nevers E, Grattard F, Carricajo A, Lucht F, Pozzetto B, Berthelot P. 2014. Detection and clinical relevance of Staphylococcus aureus nasal carriage: an update. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther12:75–89. doi: 10.1586/14787210.2014.859985. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
4. Stryjewski ME, Corey GR. 2014. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: an evolving pathogen. Clin Infect Dis58(Suppl 1):S10–S19. doi: 10.1093/cid/cit613. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
5. Malachowa N, DeLeo FR. 2010. Mobile genetic elements of Staphylococcus aureus. Cell Mol Life Sci67:3057–3071. doi: 10.1007/s00018-010-0389-4. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
6. Howden BP, Davies JK, Johnson PD, Stinear TP, Grayson ML. 2010. Reduced vancomycin susceptibility in Staphylococcus aureus, including vancomycin-intermediate and heterogeneous vancomycin-intermediate strains: resistance mechanisms, laboratory detection, and clinical implications. Clin Microbiol Rev23:99–139. doi: 10.1128/CMR.00042-09. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
7. Laupland KB, Lyytikainen O, Sogaard M, Kennedy KJ, Knudsen JD, Ostergaard C, Galbraith JC, Valiquette L, Jacobsson G, Collignon P, Schonheyder HC, International Bacteremia Surveillance Collaborative . 2013. The changing epidemiology of Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream infection: a multinational population-based surveillance study. Clin Microbiol Infect19:465–471. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2012.03903.x. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
8. Frimodt-Moller N, Espersen F, Skinhoj P, Rosdahl VT. 1997. Epidemiology of Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia in Denmark from 1957 to 1990. Clin Microbiol Infect3:297–305. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.1997.tb00617.x. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
9. Mejer N, Westh H, Schonheyder HC, Jensen AG, Larsen AR, Skov R, Benfield T, Danish Staphylococcal Bacteraemia Study Group . 2012. Stable incidence and continued improvement in short term mortality of Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia between 1995 and 2008. BMC Infect Dis12:260. doi: 10.1186/1471-2334-12-260. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
10. Allard C, Carignan A, Bergevin M, Boulais I, Tremblay V, Robichaud P, Duperval R, Pepin J. 2008. Secular changes in incidence and mortality associated with Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia in Quebec, Canada, 1991-2005. Clin Microbiol Infect14:421–428. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2008.01965.x. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
11. El Atrouni WI, Knoll BM, Lahr BD, Eckel-Passow JE, Sia IG, Baddour LM. 2009. Temporal trends in the incidence of Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia in Olmsted County, Minnesota, 1998 to 2005: a population-based study. Clin Infect Dis49:e130–e138. doi: 10.1086/648442. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
12. Laupland KB, Ross T, Gregson DB. 2008. Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream infections: risk factors, outcomes, and the influence of methicillin resistance in Calgary, Canada, 2000-2006. J Infect Dis198:336–343. doi: 10.1086/589717. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
13. Wyllie DH, Peto TE, Crook D. 2005. MRSA bacteraemia in patients on arrival in hospital: a cohort study in Oxfordshire 1997-2003. BMJ331:992. doi: 10.1136/bmj.38558.453310.8F. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
14. Klevens RM, Morrison MA, Nadle J, Petit S, Gershman K, Ray S, Harrison LH, Lynfield R, Dumyati G, Townes JM, Craig AS, Zell ER, Fosheim GE, McDougal LK, Carey RB, Fridkin SK, Active Bacterial Core Surveillance MRSA Investigators . 2007. Invasive methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in the United States. JAMA298:1763–1771. doi: 10.1001/jama.298.15.1763. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
15. Johnson AP, Pearson A, Duckworth G. 2005. Surveillance and epidemiology of MRSA bacteraemia in the UK. J Antimicrob Chemother56:455–462. doi: 10.1093/jac/dki266. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
16. Johnson AP, Davies J, Guy R, Abernethy J, Sheridan E, Pearson A, Duckworth G. 2012. Mandatory surveillance of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) bacteraemia in England: the first 10 years. J Antimicrob Chemother67:802–809. doi: 10.1093/jac/dkr561. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
17. Stone SP, Fuller C, Savage J, Cookson B, Hayward A, Cooper B, Duckworth G, Michie S, Murray M, Jeanes A, Roberts J, Teare L, Charlett A. 2012. Evaluation of the national Cleanyourhands campaign to reduce Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia and Clostridium difficile infection in hospitals in England and Wales by improved hand hygiene: four year, prospective, ecological, interrupted time series study. BMJ344:e3005. doi: 10.1136/bmj.e3005. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
18. Kallen AJ, Mu Y, Bulens S, Reingold A, Petit S, Gershman K, Ray SM, Harrison LH, Lynfield R, Dumyati G, Townes JM, Schaffner W, Patel PR, Fridkin SK. 2010. Health care-associated invasive MRSA infections, 2005-2008. JAMA304:641–648. doi: 10.1001/jama.2010.1115. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
19. Grayson ML, Jarvie LJ, Martin R, Johnson PD, Jodoin ME, McMullan C, Gregory RH, Bellis K, Cunnington K, Wilson FL, Quin D, Kelly AM. 2008. Significant reductions in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia and clinical isolates associated with a multisite, hand hygiene culture-change program and subsequent successful statewide roll-out. Med J Aust188:633-640. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
20. Jarlier V, Trystram D, Brun-Buisson C, Fournier S, Carbonne A, Marty L, Andremont A, Arlet G, Buu-Hoi A, Carlet J, Decre D, Gottot S, Gutmann L, Joly-Guillou ML, Legrand P, Nicolas-Chanoine MH, Soussy CJ, Wolf M, Lucet JC, Aggoune M, Brucker G, Regnier B. 2010. Curbing methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in 38 French hospitals through a 15-year institutional control program. Arch Intern Med170:552–559. doi: 10.1001/archinternmed.2010.32. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
21. Kanoksil M, Jatapai A, Peacock SJ, Limmathurotsakul D. 2013. Epidemiology, microbiology and mortality associated with community-acquired bacteremia in northeast Thailand: a multicenter surveillance study. PLoS One8:e54714. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0054714. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
22. Berkley JA, Lowe BS, Mwangi I, Williams T, Bauni E, Mwarumba S, Ngetsa C, Slack MP, Njenga S, Hart CA, Maitland K, English M, Marsh K, Scott JA. 2005. Bacteremia among children admitted to a rural hospital in Kenya. N Engl J Med352:39–47. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa040275. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
23. Sigauque B, Roca A, Mandomando I, Morais L, Quinto L, Sacarlal J, Macete E, Nhamposa T, Machevo S, Aide P, Bassat Q, Bardaji A, Nhalungo D, Soriano-Gabarro M, Flannery B, Menendez C, Levine MM, Alonso PL. 2009. Community-acquired bacteremia among children admitted to a rural hospital in Mozambique. Pediatr Infect Dis J28:108–113. doi: 10.1097/INF.0b013e318187a87d. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
24. Groome MJ, Albrich WC, Wadula J, Khoosal M, Madhi SA. 2012. Community-onset Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia in hospitalised African children: high incidence in HIV-infected children and high prevalence of multidrug resistance. Paediatr Int Child Health32:140–146. doi: 10.1179/1465328111Y.0000000044. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
25. Asgeirsson H, Gudlaugsson O, Kristinsson KG, Heiddal S, Kristjansson M. 2011. Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia in Iceland, 1995-2008: changing incidence and mortality. Clin Microbiol Infect17:513–518. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2010.03265.x. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
26. Huggan PJ, Wells JE, Browne M, Richardson A, Murdoch DR, Chambers ST. 2010. Population-based epidemiology of Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream infection in Canterbury, New Zealand. Intern Med J40:117–125. doi: 10.1111/j.1445-5994.2009.01910.x. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
27. Lyytikainen O, Ruotsalainen E, Jarvinen A, Valtonen V, Ruutu P. 2005. Trends and outcome of nosocomial and community-acquired bloodstream infections due to Staphylococcus aureus in Finland, 1995-2001. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis24:399–404. doi: 10.1007/s10096-005-1345-3. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
28. Meyer A, Ladefoged K, Poulsen P, Koch A. 2008. Population-based survey of invasive bacterial diseases, Greenland, 1995-2004. Emerg Infect Dis14:76–79. doi: 10.3201/eid1401.071240. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
29. Landrum ML, Neumann C, Cook C, Chukwuma U, Ellis MW, Hospenthal DR, Murray CK. 2012. Epidemiology of Staphylococcus aureus blood and skin and soft tissue infections in the US military health system, 2005-2010. JAMA308:50–59. doi: 10.1001/jama.2012.7139. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
30. Tong SY, Bishop EJ, Lilliebridge RA, Cheng AC, Spasova-Penkova Z, Holt DC, Giffard PM, McDonald MI, Currie BJ, Boutlis CS. 2009. Community-associated strains of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and methicillin-susceptible S. aureus in indigenous northern Australia: epidemiology and outcomes. J Infect Dis199:1461–1470. doi: 10.1086/598218. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
31. Tong SY, van Hal SJ, Einsiedel L, Currie BJ, Turnidge JD. 2012. Impact of ethnicity and socio-economic status on Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia incidence and mortality: a heavy burden in indigenous Australians. BMC Infect Dis12:249. doi: 10.1186/1471-2334-12-249. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
32. Hewagama S, Einsiedel L, Spelman T. 2012. Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia at Alice Springs Hospital, Central Australia, 2003-2006. Intern Med J42:505–512. doi: 10.1111/j.1445-5994.2011.02449.x. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
33. Hill PC, Birch M, Chambers S, Drinkovic D, Ellis-Pegler RB, Everts R, Murdoch D, Pottumarthy S, Roberts SA, Swager C, Taylor SL, Thomas MG, Wong CG, Morris AJ. 2001. Prospective study of 424 cases of Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia: determination of factors affecting incidence and mortality. Intern Med J31:97–103. doi: 10.1111/j.1444-0903.2001.00029.x. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
34. Hill PC, Wong CG, Voss LM, Taylor SL, Pottumarthy S, Drinkovic D, Morris AJ. 2001. Prospective study of 125 cases of Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia in children in New Zealand. Pediatr Infect Dis J20:868–873. doi: 10.1097/00006454-200109000-00009. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
35. Larsen MV, Harboe ZB, Ladelund S, Skov R, Gerstoft J, Pedersen C, Larsen CS, Obel N, Kronborg G, Benfield T. 2012. Major but differential decline in the incidence of Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia in HIV-infected individuals from 1995 to 2007: a nationwide cohort study. HIV Med13:45–53. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-1293.2011.00937.x. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
36. Burkey MD, Wilson LE, Moore RD, Lucas GM, Francis J, Gebo KA. 2008. The incidence of and risk factors for MRSA bacteraemia in an HIV-infected cohort in the HAART era. HIV Med9:858–862. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-1293.2008.00629.x. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
37. Spijkerman IJ, van Ameijden EJ, Mientjes GH, Coutinho RA, van den Hoek A. 1996. Human immunodeficiency virus infection and other risk factors for skin abscesses and endocarditis among injection drug users. J Clin Epidemiol49:1149–1154. doi: 10.1016/0895-4356(96)00180-1. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
38. Tuazon CU, Sheagren JN. 1974. Increased rate of carriage of Staphylococcus aureus among narcotic addicts. J Infect Dis129:725–727. doi: 10.1093/infdis/129.6.725. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
39. Palepu A, Tyndall MW, Leon H, Muller J, O'Shaughnessy MV, Schechter MT, Anis AH. 2001. Hospital utilization and costs in a cohort of injection drug users. CMAJ165:415–420. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
40. Craven DE, Rixinger AI, Goularte TA, McCabe WR. 1986. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia linked to intravenous drug abusers using a “shooting gallery.” Am J Med80:770–776. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
41. Wang IK, Chang YC, Liang CC, Chuang FR, Chang CT, Lin HH, Lin CC, Yen TH, Lin PC, Chou CY, Huang CC, Tsai WC, Chen JH. 2012. Bacteremia in hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis patients. Intern Med51:1015–1021. doi: 10.2169/internalmedicine.51.7111. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
42. Fitzgerald SF, O'Gorman J, Morris-Downes MM, Crowley RK, Donlon S, Bajwa R, Smyth EG, Fitzpatrick F, Conlon PJ, Humphreys H. 2011. A 12-year review of Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream infections in haemodialysis patients: more work to be done. J Hosp Infect79:218–221. doi: 10.1016/j.jhin.2011.06.015. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
43. Vanholder R, Ringoir S, Dhondt A, Hakim R. 1991. Phagocytosis in uremic and hemodialysis patients: a prospective and cross sectional study. Kidney Int39:320–327. doi: 10.1038/ki.1991.40. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
44. Boelaert JR, Daneels RF, Schurgers ML, Matthys EG, Gordts BZ, Van Landuyt HW. 1990. Iron overload in haemodialysis patients increases the risk of bacteraemia: a prospective study. Nephrol Dial Transplant5:130–134. doi: 10.1093/ndt/5.2.130. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
45. Zimakoff J, Bangsgaard Pedersen F, Bergen L, Baago-Nielsen J, Daldorph B, Espersen F, Gahrn Hansen B, Hoiby N, Jepsen OB, Joffe P, Kolmos HJ, Klausen M, Kristoffersen K, Ladefoged J, Olesen-Larsen S, Rosdahl VT, Scheibel J, Storm B, Tofte-Jensen P. 1996. Staphylococcus aureus carriage and infections among patients in four haemo- and peritoneal-dialysis centres in Denmark. The Danish Study Group of Peritonitis in Dialysis (DASPID). J Hosp Infect33:289–300. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
46. Jeremiah CJ, Wills C, Bayly A, Perry GJ, Davis JS, Tong SY, Currie BJ. 2014. Vancomycin dosing nomogram for haemodialysis patients. Nephrology19:513–514. doi: 10.1111/nep.12270. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
47. Vandecasteele SJ, De Vriese AS. 2011. Vancomycin dosing in patients on intermittent hemodialysis. Semin Dial24:50–55. doi: 10.1111/j.1525-139X.2010.00803.x. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
48. Barth RH, DeVincenzo N. 1996. Use of vancomycin in high-flux hemodialysis: experience with 130 courses of therapy. Kidney Int50:929–936. doi: 10.1038/ki.1996.393. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
49. Benfield T, Espersen F, Frimodt-Moller N, Jensen AG, Larsen AR, Pallesen LV, Skov R, Westh H, Skinhoj P. 2007. Increasing incidence but decreasing in-hospital mortality of adult Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia between 1981 and 2000. Clin Microbiol Infect13:257–263. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2006.01589.x. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
50. Skogberg K, Lyytikainen O, Ollgren J, Nuorti JP, Ruutu P. 2012. Population-based burden of bloodstream infections in Finland. Clin Microbiol Infect18:E170–E176. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2012.03845.x. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
51. van Cleef BA, Kluytmans JA, van Benthem BH, Haenen A, Monen J, Daniels-Haardt I, Jurke A, Friedrich AW. 2012. Cross border comparison of MRSA bacteraemia between The Netherlands and North Rhine-Westphalia (Germany): a cross-sectional study. PLoS One7:e42787. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0042787. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
52. Frederiksen MS, Espersen F, Frimodt-Moller N, Jensen AG, Larsen AR, Pallesen LV, Skov R, Westh H, Skinhoj P, Benfield T. 2007. Changing epidemiology of pediatric Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia in Denmark from 1971 through 2000. Pediatr Infect Dis J26:398–405. doi: 10.1097/01.inf.0000261112.53035.4c. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
53. Vanderkooi OG, Gregson DB, Kellner JD, Laupland KB. 2011. Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream infections in children: a population-based assessment. Paediatr Child Health16:276–280. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
54. Nielsen MV, Sarpong N, Krumkamp R, Dekker D, Loag W, Amemasor S, Agyekum A, Marks F, Huenger F, Krefis AC, Hagen RM, Adu-Sarkodie Y, May J, Schwarz NG. 2012. Incidence and characteristics of bacteremia among children in rural Ghana. PLoS One7:e44063. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0044063. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
55. Jacobsson G, Dashti S, Wahlberg T, Andersson R. 2007. The epidemiology of and risk factors for invasive Staphylococcus aureus infections in western Sweden. Scand J Infect Dis39:6–13. doi: 10.1080/00365540600810026. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
56. Bishara J, Goldberg E, Leibovici L, Samra Z, Shaked H, Mansur N, Paul M. 2012. Healthcare-associated vs. hospital-acquired Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Int J Infect Dis16:e457–e463. doi: 10.1016/j.ijid.2012.02.009. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
57. Bassetti M, Trecarichi EM, Mesini A, Spanu T, Giacobbe DR, Rossi M, Shenone E, Pascale GD, Molinari MP, Cauda R, Viscoli C, Tumbarello M. 2012. Risk factors and mortality of healthcare-associated and community-acquired Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia. Clin Microbiol Infect18:862–869. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2011.03679.x. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
58. Nickerson EK, Hongsuwan M, Limmathurotsakul D, Wuthiekanun V, Shah KR, Srisomang P, Mahavanakul W, Wacharaprechasgul T, Fowler VG, West TE, Teerawatanasuk N, Becher H, White NJ, Chierakul W, Day NP, Peacock SJ. 2009. Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia in a tropical setting: patient outcome and impact of antibiotic resistance. PLoS One4:e4308. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0004308. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
59. Turnidge JD, Kotsanas D, Munckhof W, Roberts S, Bennett CM, Nimmo GR, Coombs GW, Murray RJ, Howden B, Johnson PD, Dowling K. 2009. Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia: a major cause of mortality in Australia and New Zealand. Med J Aust191:368–373. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
60. Kaasch AJ, Barlow G, Edgeworth JD, Fowler VG Jr, Hellmich M, Hopkins S, Kern WV, Llewelyn MJ, Rieg S, Rodriguez-Bano J, Scarborough M, Seifert H, Soriano A, Tilley R, Torok ME, Weiss V, Wilson AP, Thwaites GE, ISAC, INSTINCT, SABG, UKCIRG, and Colleagues . 2014. Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream infection: a pooled analysis of five prospective, observational studies. J Infect68:242–251. doi: 10.1016/j.jinf.2013.10.015. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
61. Pastagia M, Kleinman LC, Lacerda de la Cruz EG, Jenkins SG. 2012. Predicting risk for death from MRSA bacteremia. Emerg Infect Dis18:1072–1080. doi: 10.3201/eid1807.101371. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
62. Isobe M, Uejima E, Seki M, Yamagishi Y, Miyawaki K, Yabuno K, Masaoka M, Hamaguchi S, Yoshioka N, Tomono K. 2012. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia at a university hospital in Japan. J Infect Chemother18:841–847. doi: 10.1007/s10156-012-0423-6. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
63. Park KH, Kim ES, Kim HS, Park SJ, Bang KM, Park HJ, Park SY, Moon SM, Chong YP, Kim SH, Lee SO, Choi SH, Jeong JY, Kim MN, Woo JH, Kim YS. 2012. Comparison of the clinical features, bacterial genotypes and outcomes of patients with bacteraemia due to heteroresistant vancomycin-intermediate Staphylococcus aureus and vancomycin-susceptible S. aureus. J Antimicrob Chemother67:1843–1849. doi: 10.1093/jac/dks131. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
64. Honda H, Doern CD, Michael-Dunne W Jr, Warren DK. 2011. The impact of vancomycin susceptibility on treatment outcomes among patients with methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. BMC Infect Dis11:335. doi: 10.1186/1471-2334-11-335. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
65. van Hal SJ, Jones M, Gosbell IB, Paterson DL. 2011. Vancomycin heteroresistance is associated with reduced mortality in ST239 methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus blood stream infections. PLoS One6:e21217. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0021217. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
66. Lewis T, Chaudhry R, Nightingale P, Lambert P, Das I. 2011. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia: epidemiology, outcome, and laboratory characteristics in a tertiary referral center in the UK. Int J Infect Dis15:e131–e135. doi: 10.1016/j.ijid.2010.09.013. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
67. Burton DC, Edwards JR, Horan TC, Jernigan JA, Fridkin SK. 2009. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus central line-associated bloodstream infections in US intensive care units, 1997-2007. JAMA301:727–736. doi: 10.1001/jama.2009.153. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
68. Tattevin P, Schwartz BS, Graber CJ, Volinski J, Bhukhen A, Bhukhen A, Mai TT, Vo NH, Dang DN, Phan TH, Basuino L, Perdreau-Remington F, Chambers HF, Diep BA. 2012. Concurrent epidemics of skin and soft tissue infection and bloodstream infection due to community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Clin Infect Dis55:781–788. doi: 10.1093/cid/cis527. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
69. Fowler VG Jr, Olsen MK, Corey GR, Woods CW, Cabell CH, Reller LB, Cheng AC, Dudley T, Oddone EZ. 2003. Clinical identifiers of complicated Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Arch Intern Med163:2066–2072. doi: 10.1001/archinte.163.17.2066. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
70. van Hal SJ, Jensen SO, Vaska VL, Espedido BA, Paterson DL, Gosbell IB. 2012. Predictors of mortality in Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Clin Microbiol Rev25:362–386. doi: 10.1128/CMR.05022-11. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
71. Skinner D, Keefer CS. 1941. Significance of bacteremia caused by Staphylococcus aureus. Arch Intern Med68:851–875. doi: 10.1001/archinte.1941.00200110003001. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
72. Spink WW, Hall WH. 1945. Penicillin therapy at the University of Minnesota hospitals: 1942-1944. Ann Intern Med22:510–525. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-22-4-510. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
73. Gould FK, Brindle R, Chadwick PR, Fraise AP, Hill S, Nathwani D, Ridgway GL, Spry MJ, Warren RE, MRSA Working Party of the British Society for Antimicrobial Chemotherapy . 2009. Guidelines (2008) for the prophylaxis and treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections in the United Kingdom. J Antimicrob Chemother63:849–861. doi: 10.1093/jac/dkp065. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
74. Gemmell CG, Edwards DI, Fraise AP, Gould FK, Ridgway GL, Warren RE, Joint Working Party of the British Society for Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, Hospital Infection Society, Infection Control Nurses Association . 2006. Guidelines for the prophylaxis and treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections in the UK. J Antimicrob Chemother57:589–608. doi: 10.1093/jac/dkl017. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
75. Mitchell DH, Howden BP. 2005. Diagnosis and management of Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia. Intern Med J35(Suppl 2):S17–S24. doi: 10.1111/j.1444-0903.2005.00977.x. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
76. Liu C, Bayer A, Cosgrove SE, Daum RS, Fridkin SK, Gorwitz RJ, Kaplan SL, Karchmer AW, Levine DP, Murray BE, Ryback MJ, Talan DA, Chambers HF. 2011. Clinical practice guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America for the treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in adults and children. Clin Infect Dis52:e18–e55. doi: 10.1093/cid/ciq146. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
77. Thwaites GE, Edgeworth JD, Gkrania-Klotsas E, Kirby A, Tilley R, Torok ME, Walker S, Wertheim HF, Wilson P, Llewelyn MJ, UK Clinical Infection Research Group . 2011. Clinical management of Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia. Lancet Infect Dis11:208–222. doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(10)70285-1. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
78. Holland TL, Arnold C, Fowler VG Jr. 2014. Clinical management of Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia: a review. JAMA312:1330–1341. doi: 10.1001/jama.2014.9743. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
79. Liu C, Bayer A, Cosgrove SE, Daum RS, Fridkin SK, Gorwitz RJ, Kaplan SL, Karchmer AW, Levine DP, Murray BE, Ryback MJ, Talan DA, Chambers HF. 2011. Clinical practice guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America for the treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in adults and children: executive summary. Clin Infect Dis52:285–292. doi: 10.1093/cid/cir034. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
80. Lahey T, Shah R, Gittzus J, Schwartzman J, Kirkland K. 2009. Infectious diseases consultation lowers mortality from Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Medicine (Baltimore)88:263–267. doi: 10.1097/MD.0b013e3181b8fccb. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
81. Nagao M, Iinuma Y, Saito T, Matsumura Y, Shirano M, Matsushima A, Takakura S, Ito Y, Ichiyama S. 2010. Close cooperation between infectious disease physicians and attending physicians can result in better management and outcome for patients with Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia. Clin Microbiol Infect16:1783–1788. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2010.03156.x. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
82. Choi SH, Cho SY, Park JH, Chung JW. 2011. Impact of infectious-disease specialist consultations on outcomes of Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia in a hospital with a low volume of patients with S. aureus bacteremia. J Infect62:181–185. doi: 10.1016/j.jinf.2010.12.002. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
83. Robinson JO, Pozzi-Langhi S, Phillips M, Pearson JC, Christiansen KJ, Coombs GW, Murray RJ. 2012. Formal infectious diseases consultation is associated with decreased mortality in Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis31:2421–2428. doi: 10.1007/s10096-012-1585-y. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
84. Fries BL, Licitra C, Crespo A, Akhter K, Busowski MT, Salazar D, Wallace MR. 2014. Infectious diseases consultation and the management of Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Clin Infect Dis58:598–599. doi: 10.1093/cid/cit730. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
85. Tissot F, Calandra T, Prod'hom G, Taffe P, Zanetti G, Greub G, Senn L. 2014. Mandatory infectious diseases consultation for MRSA bacteremia is associated with reduced mortality. J Infect69:226–234. doi: 10.1016/j.jinf.2014.05.004. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
86. Jenkins TC, Price CS, Sabel AL, Mehler PS, Burman WJ. 2008. Impact of routine infectious diseases service consultation on the evaluation, management, and outcomes of Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Clin Infect Dis46:1000–1008. doi: 10.1086/529190. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
87. Rieg S, Peyerl-Hoffmann G, de With K, Theilacker C, Wagner D, Hubner J, Dettenkofer M, Kaasch A, Seifert H, Schneider C, Kern WV. 2009. Mortality of S. aureus bacteremia and infectious diseases specialist consultation—a study of 521 patients in Germany. J Infect59:232–239. doi: 10.1016/j.jinf.2009.07.015. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
88. Honda H, Krauss MJ, Jones JC, Olsen MA, Warren DK. 2010. The value of infectious diseases consultation in Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Am J Med123:631–637. doi: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2010.01.015. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
89. Pragman AA, Kuskowski MA, Abraham JM, Filice GA. 2012. Infectious disease consultation for Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia improves patient management and outcomes. Infect Dis Clin Pract (Baltim Md)20:261–267. doi: 10.1097/IPC.0b013e318255d67c. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
90. Forsblom E, Ruotsalainen E, Ollgren J, Jarvinen A. 2013. Telephone consultation cannot replace bedside infectious disease consultation in the management of Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Clin Infect Dis56:527–535. doi: 10.1093/cid/cis889. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
91. Fowler VG Jr, Li J, Corey GR, Boley J, Marr KA, Gopal AK, Kong LK, Gottlieb G, Donovan CL, Sexton DJ, Ryan T. 1997. Role of echocardiography in evaluation of patients with Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia: experience in 103 patients. J Am Coll Cardiol30:1072–1078. doi: 10.1016/S0735-1097(97)00250-7. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
92. Van Hal SJ, Mathur G, Kelly J, Aronis C, Cranney GB, Jones PD. 2005. The role of transthoracic echocardiography in excluding left sided infective endocarditis in Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia. J Infect51:218–221. doi: 10.1016/j.jinf.2005.01.011. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
93. Khatib R, Sharma M. 2013. Echocardiography is dispensable in uncomplicated Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Medicine92:182–188. doi: 10.1097/MD.0b013e318294a710. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
94. Sullenberger AL, Avedissian LS, Kent SM. 2005. Importance of transesophageal echocardiography in the evaluation of Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. J Heart Valve Dis14:23–28. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
95. Khandheria BK, Seward JB, Tajik AJ. 1994. Transesophageal echocardiography. Mayo Clin Proc69:856–863. doi: 10.1016/S0025-6196(12)61788-1. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
96. Joseph JP, Meddows TR, Webster DP, Newton JD, Myerson SG, Prendergast B, Scarborough M, Herring N. 2013. Prioritizing echocardiography in Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia. J Antimicrob Chemother68:444–449. doi: 10.1093/jac/dks408. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
97. Rasmussen RV, Host U, Arpi M, Hassager C, Johansen HK, Korup E, Schonheyder HC, Berning J, Gill S, Rosenvinge FS, Fowler VG Jr, Moller JE, Skov RL, Larsen CT, Hansen TF, Mard S, Smit J, Andersen PS, Bruun NE. 2011. Prevalence of infective endocarditis in patients with Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia: the value of screening with echocardiography. Eur J Echocardiogr12:414–420. doi: 10.1093/ejechocard/jer023. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
98. Kaasch AJ, Fowler VG Jr, Rieg S, Peyerl-Hoffmann G, Birkholz H, Hellmich M, Kern WV, Seifert H. 2011. Use of a simple criteria set for guiding echocardiography in nosocomial Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Clin Infect Dis53:1–9. doi: 10.1093/cid/cir320. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
99. Chong YP, Moon SM, Bang KM, Park HJ, Park SY, Kim MN, Park KH, Kim SH, Lee SO, Choi SH, Jeong JY, Woo JH, Kim YS. 2013. Treatment duration for uncomplicated Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia to prevent relapse: analysis of a prospective observational cohort study. Antimicrob Agents Chemother57:1150–1156. doi: 10.1128/AAC.01021-12. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
100. Jernigan JA, Farr BM. 1993. Short-course therapy of catheter-related Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia: a meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med119:304–311. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-119-4-199308150-00010. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
101. Chambers HF, Miller RT, Newman MD. 1988. Right-sided Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis in intravenous drug abusers: two-week combination therapy. Ann Intern Med109:619–624. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-109-8-619. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
102. Ribera E, Gomez-Jimenez J, Cortes E, del Valle O, Planes A, Gonzalez-Alujas T, Almirante B, Ocana I, Pahissa A. 1996. Effectiveness of cloxacillin with and without gentamicin in short-term therapy for right-sided Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis. A randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med125:969–974. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
103. Torres-Tortosa M, de Cueto M, Vergara A, Sanchez-Porto A, Perez-Guzman E, Gonzalez-Serrano M, Canueto J. 1994. Prospective evaluation of a two-week course of intravenous antibiotics in intravenous drug addicts with infective endocarditis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis13:559–564. doi: 10.1007/BF01971306. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
104. Fortun J, Perez-Molina JA, Anon MT, Martinez-Beltran J, Loza E, Guerrero A. 1995. Right-sided endocarditis caused by Staphylococcus aureus in drug abusers. Antimicrob Agents Chemother39:525–528. doi: 10.1128/AAC.39.2.525. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
105. Fortun J, Navas E, Martinez-Beltran J, Perez-Molina J, Martin-Davila P, Guerrero A, Moreno S. 2001. Short-course therapy for right-side endocarditis due to Staphylococcus aureus in drug abusers: cloxacillin versus glycopeptides in combination with gentamicin. Clin Infect Dis33:120–125. doi: 10.1086/320869. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
106. Gould FK, Denning DW, Elliott TS, Foweraker J, Perry JD, Prendergast BD, Sandoe JA, Spry MJ, Watkin RW, Working Party of the British Society for Antimicrobial Chemotherapy . 2012. Guidelines for the diagnosis and antibiotic treatment of endocarditis in adults: a report of the Working Party of the British Society for Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. J Antimicrob Chemother67:269–289. doi: 10.1093/jac/dkr450. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
107. Calain P, Krause KH, Vaudaux P, Auckenthaler R, Lew D, Waldvogel F, Hirschel B. 1987. Early termination of a prospective, randomized trial comparing teicoplanin and flucloxacillin for treating severe staphylococcal infections. J Infect Dis155:187–191. doi: 10.1093/infdis/155.2.187. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
108. Degener JE, Vogel M, Michel MF, Mutsaers MM, Hop WC. 1989. The efficacy of the combination of teicoplanin or flucloxacillin with netilmicin in the treatment of Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia. J Antimicrob Chemother23:899–904. doi: 10.1093/jac/23.6.899. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
109. Khatib R, Johnson LB, Sharma M, Fakih MG, Ganga R, Riederer K. 2009. Persistent Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia: incidence and outcome trends over time. Scand J Infect Dis41:4–9. doi: 10.1080/00365540802441711. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
110. Walker TM, Bowler IC, Bejon P. 2009. Risk factors for recurrence after Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia. A retrospective matched case-control study. J Infect58:411–416. doi: 10.1016/j.jinf.2009.03.011. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
111. Lodise TP Jr, McKinnon PS, Levine DP, Rybak MJ. 2007. Impact of empirical-therapy selection on outcomes of intravenous drug users with infective endocarditis caused by methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother51:3731–3733. doi: 10.1128/AAC.00101-07. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
112. Khatib R, Johnson LB, Fakih MG, Riederer K, Khosrovaneh A, Shamse Tabriz M, Sharma M, Saeed S. 2006. Persistence in Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia: incidence, characteristics of patients and outcome. Scand J Infect Dis38:7–14. doi: 10.1080/00365540500372846. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
113. Siegman-Igra Y, Reich P, Orni-Wasserlauf R, Schwartz D, Giladi M. 2005. The role of vancomycin in the persistence or recurrence of Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia. Scand J Infect Dis37:572–578. doi: 10.1080/00365540510038488. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
114. Chang FY, Peacock JE Jr, Musher DM, Triplett P, MacDonald BB, Mylotte JM, O'Donnell A, Wagener MM, Yu VL. 2003. Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia: recurrence and the impact of antibiotic treatment in a prospective multicenter study. Medicine (Baltimore)82:333–339. doi: 10.1097/01.md.0000091184.93122.09. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
115. Stryjewski ME, Szczech LA, Benjamin DK Jr, Inrig JK, Kanafani ZA, Engemann JJ, Chu VH, Joyce MJ, Reller LB, Corey GR, Fowler VG Jr. 2007. Use of vancomycin or first-generation cephalosporins for the treatment of hemodialysis-dependent patients with methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Clin Infect Dis44:190–196. doi: 10.1086/510386. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
116. Kim SH, Kim KH, Kim HB, Kim NJ, Kim EC, Oh MD, Choe KW. 2008. Outcome of vancomycin treatment in patients with methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother52:192–197. doi: 10.1128/AAC.00700-07. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
117. Small PM, Chambers HF. 1990. Vancomycin for Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis in intravenous drug users. Antimicrob Agents Chemother34:1227–1231. doi: 10.1128/AAC.34.6.1227. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
118. Schweizer ML, Furuno JP, Harris AD, Johnson JK, Shardell MD, McGregor JC, Thom KA, Cosgrove SE, Sakoulas G, Perencevich EN. 2011. Comparative effectiveness of nafcillin or cefazolin versus vancomycin in methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. BMC Infect Dis11:279. doi: 10.1186/1471-2334-11-279. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
119. Fowler VG Jr, Boucher HW, Corey GR, Abrutyn E, Karchmer AW, Rupp ME, Levine DP, Chambers HF, Tally FP, Vigliani GA, Cabell CH, Link AS, DeMeyer I, Filler SG, Zervos M, Cook P, Parsonnet J, Bernstein JM, Price CS, Forrest GN, Fatkenheuer G, Gareca M, Rehm SJ, Brodt HR, Tice A, Cosgrove SE. 2006. Daptomycin versus standard therapy for bacteremia and endocarditis caused by Staphylococcus aureus. N Engl J Med355:653–665. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa053783. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
120. Menichetti F, Martino P, Bucaneve G, Gentile G, D'Antonio D, Liso V, Ricci P, Nosari AM, Buelli M, Carotenuto M, Fasola G, Jacopino P, Montillo M, Barbabietola G, Girmenia C, Del Favero A, Gimema Infection Program . 1994. Effects of teicoplanin and those of vancomycin in initial empirical antibiotic regimen for febrile, neutropenic patients with hematologic malignancies. Antimicrob Agents Chemother38:2041–2046. doi: 10.1128/AAC.38.9.2041. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
121. Markowitz N, Quinn EL, Saravolatz LD. 1992. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole compared with vancomycin for the treatment of Staphylococcus aureus infection. Ann Intern Med117:390–398. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-117-5-390. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
122. Wilcox MH, Tack KJ, Bouza E, Herr DL, Ruf BR, Ijzerman MM, Croos-Dabrera RV, Kunkel MJ, Knirsch C. 2009. Complicated skin and skin-structure infections and catheter-related bloodstream infections: noninferiority of linezolid in a phase 3 study. Clin Infect Dis48:203–212. doi: 10.1086/595686. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
123. Shorr AF, Kunkel MJ, Kollef M. 2005. Linezolid versus vancomycin for Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia: pooled analysis of randomized studies. J Antimicrob Chemother56:923–929. doi: 10.1093/jac/dki355. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
124. Raad I, Darouiche R, Vazquez J, Lentnek A, Hachem R, Hanna H, Goldstein B, Henkel T, Seltzer E. 2005. Efficacy and safety of weekly dalbavancin therapy for catheter-related bloodstream infection caused by gram-positive pathogens. Clin Infect Dis40:374–380. doi: 10.1086/427283. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
125. Fowler VG Jr, Miro JM, Hoen B, Cabell CH, Abrutyn E, Rubinstein E, Corey GR, Spelman D, Bradley SF, Barsic B, Pappas PA, Anstrom KJ, Wray D, Fortes CQ, Anguera I, Athan E, Jones P, van der Meer JT, Elliott TS, Levine DP, Bayer AS. 2005. Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis: a consequence of medical progress. JAMA293:3012–3021. doi: 10.1001/jama.293.24.3012. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
126. Murdoch DR, Corey GR, Hoen B, Miro JM, Fowler VG Jr, Bayer AS, Karchmer AW, Olaison L, Pappas PA, Moreillon P, Chambers ST, Chu VH, Falco V, Holland DJ, Jones P, Klein JL, Raymond NJ, Read KM, Tripodi MF, Utili R, Wang A, Woods CW, Cabell CH. 2009. Clinical presentation, etiology, and outcome of infective endocarditis in the 21st century: the International Collaboration on Endocarditis-Prospective Cohort Study. Arch Intern Med169:463–473. doi: 10.1001/archinternmed.2008.603. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
127. Duval X, Delahaye F, Alla F, Tattevin P, Obadia JF, Le Moing V, Doco-Lecompte T, Celard M, Poyart C, Strady C, Chirouze C, Bes M, Cambau E, Iung B, Selton-Suty C, Hoen B, AEPEI Study Group . 2012. Temporal trends in infective endocarditis in the context of prophylaxis guideline modifications: three successive population-based surveys. J Am Coll Cardiol59:1968–1976. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2012.02.029. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
128. Fedeli U, Schievano E, Buonfrate D, Pellizzer G, Spolaore P. 2011. Increasing incidence and mortality of infective endocarditis: a population-based study through a record-linkage system. BMC Infect Dis11:48. doi: 10.1186/1471-2334-11-48. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
129. Sy RW, Kritharides L. 2010. Health care exposure and age in infective endocarditis: results of a contemporary population-based profile of 1536 patients in Australia. Eur Heart J31:1890–1897. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehq110. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
130. Tleyjeh IM, Abdel-Latif A, Rahbi H, Scott CG, Bailey KR, Steckelberg JM, Wilson WR, Baddour LM. 2007. A systematic review of population-based studies of infective endocarditis. Chest132:1025–1035. doi: 10.1378/chest.06-2048. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
131. Federspiel JJ, Stearns SC, Peppercorn AF, Chu VH, Fowler VG Jr. 2012. Increasing US rates of endocarditis with Staphylococcus aureus: 1999-2008. Arch Intern Med172:363–365. doi: 10.1001/archinternmed.2011.1027. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
132. Miro JM, Anguera I, Cabell CH, Chen AY, Stafford JA, Corey GR, Olaison L, Eykyn S, Hoen B, Abrutyn E, Raoult D, Bayer A, Fowler VG Jr. 2005. Staphylococcus aureus native valve infective endocarditis: report of 566 episodes from the International Collaboration on Endocarditis merged database. Clin Infect Dis41:507–514. doi: 10.1086/431979. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
133. Benito N, Miro JM, de Lazzari E, Cabell CH, del Rio A, Altclas J, Commerford P, Delahaye F, Dragulescu S, Giamarellou H, Habib G, Kamarulzaman A, Kumar AS, Nacinovich FM, Suter F, Tribouilloy C, Venugopal K, Moreno A, Fowler VG Jr, ICE-PCS Investigators . 2009. Health care-associated native valve endocarditis: importance of non-nosocomial acquisition. Ann Intern Med150:586–594. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-150-9-200905050-00004. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
134. Chu VH, Cabell CH, Benjamin DK Jr, Kuniholm EF, Fowler VG Jr, Engemann J, Sexton DJ, Corey GR, Wang A. 2004. Early predictors of in-hospital death in infective endocarditis. Circulation109:1745–1749. doi: 10.1161/01.CIR.0000124719.61827.7F. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
135. Thuny F, Di Salvo G, Belliard O, Avierinos JF, Pergola V, Rosenberg V, Casalta JP, Gouvernet J, Derumeaux G, Iarussi D, Ambrosi P, Calabro R, Riberi A, Collart F, Metras D, Lepidi H, Raoult D, Harle JR, Weiller PJ, Cohen A, Habib G. 2005. Risk of embolism and death in infective endocarditis. Prognostic value of echocardiography: a prospective multicenter study. Circulation112:69–75. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.104.493155. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
136. Bor DH, Woolhandler S, Nardin R, Brusch J, Himmelstein DU. 2013. Infective endocarditis in the U.S., 1998-2009: a nationwide study. PLoS One8:e60033. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0060033. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
137. Kanafani ZA, Mahfouz TH, Kanj SS. 2002. Infective endocarditis at a tertiary care centre in Lebanon: predominance of streptococcal infection. J Infect45:152–159. doi: 10.1053/jinf.2002.1041. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
138. Ikama MS, Nkalla-Lambi M, Kimbally-Kaky G, Loumouamou ML, Nkoua JL. 2013. Profile of infective endocarditis at Brazzaville University Hospital. Med Sante Trop23:89–92. doi: 10.1684/mst.2013.0151. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
139. Yameogo NV, Kologo KJ, Yameogo AA, Yonaba C, Millogo GR, Kissou SA, Toguyeni BJ, Samadoulougou AK, Pignatelli S, Simpore J, Zabsonre P. 2014. Infective endocarditis in sub-Saharan African children, cross-sectional study about 19 cases in Ouagadougou at Burkina Faso. Ann Cardiol Angeiol (Paris)63:7–10. doi: 10.1016/j.ancard.2013.02.004. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
140. Trabelsi I, Rekik S, Znazen A, Maaloul I, Abid D, Maalej A, Kharrat I, Ben Jemaa M, Hammemi A, Kammoun S. 2008. Native valve infective endocarditis in a tertiary care center in a developing country (Tunisia). Am J Cardiol102:1247–1251. doi: 10.1016/j.amjcard.2008.06.052. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
141. Letaief A, Boughzala E, Kaabia N, Ernez S, Abid F, Ben Chaabane T, Ben Jemaa M, Boujnah R, Chakroun M, Daoud M, Gaha R, Kafsi N, Khalfallah A, Slimane L, Zaouali M. 2007. Epidemiology of infective endocarditis in Tunisia: a 10-year multicenter retrospective study. Int J Infect Dis11:430–433. doi: 10.1016/j.ijid.2006.10.006. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
142. Selton-Suty C, Celard M, Le Moing V, Doco-Lecompte T, Chirouze C, Iung B, Strady C, Revest M, Vandenesch F, Bouvet A, Delahaye F, Alla F, Duval X, Hoen B, AEPEI Study Group . 2012. Preeminence of Staphylococcus aureus in infective endocarditis: a 1-year population-based survey. Clin Infect Dis54:1230–1239. doi: 10.1093/cid/cis199. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
143. Fowler VG Jr, Sanders LL, Kong LK, McClelland RS, Gottlieb GS, Li J, Ryan T, Sexton DJ, Roussakis G, Harrell LJ, Corey GR. 1999. Infective endocarditis due to Staphylococcus aureus: 59 prospectively identified cases with follow-up. Clin Infect Dis28:106–114. doi: 10.1086/515076. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
144. Cabell CH, Abrutyn E. 2002. Progress toward a global understanding of infective endocarditis. Early lessons from the International Collaboration on Endocarditis investigation. Infect Dis Clin North Am16:255–272. doi: 10.1016/S0891-5520(01)00007-1. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
145. Thayer WS.1931. Bacterial or infective endocarditis: Gibson lectures for 1930. Edinb Med J38:237–265. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
146. Fernandez Guerrero ML, Gonzalez Lopez JJ, Goyenechea A, Fraile J, de Gorgolas M. 2009. Endocarditis caused by Staphylococcus aureus: a reappraisal of the epidemiologic, clinical, and pathologic manifestations with analysis of factors determining outcome. Medicine (Baltimore)88:1–22. doi: 10.1097/MD.0b013e318194da65. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
147. Grover FL, Cohen DJ, Oprian C, Henderson WG, Sethi G, Hammermeister KE. 1994. Determinants of the occurrence of and survival from prosthetic valve endocarditis. Experience of the Veterans Affairs Cooperative Study on Valvular Heart Disease. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg108:207–214. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
148. Ivert TS, Dismukes WE, Cobbs CG, Blackstone EH, Kirklin JW, Bergdahl LA. 1984. Prosthetic valve endocarditis. Circulation69:223–232. doi: 10.1161/01.CIR.69.2.223. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
149. Calderwood SB, Swinski LA, Waternaux CM, Karchmer AW, Buckley MJ. 1985. Risk factors for the development of prosthetic valve endocarditis. Circulation72:31–37. doi: 10.1161/01.CIR.72.1.31. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
150. Wang A, Athan E, Pappas PA, Fowler VG Jr, Olaison L, Pare C, Almirante B, Munoz P, Rizzi M, Naber C, Logar M, Tattevin P, Iarussi DL, Selton-Suty C, Jones SB, Casabe J, Morris A, Corey GR, Cabell CH, International Collaboration on Endocarditis-Prospective Cohort Study Investigators . 2007. Contemporary clinical profile and outcome of prosthetic valve endocarditis. JAMA297:1354–1361. doi: 10.1001/jama.297.12.1354. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
151. Lalani T, Chu VH, Park LP, Cecchi E, Corey GR, Durante-Mangoni E, Fowler VG Jr, Gordon D, Grossi P, Hannan M, Hoen B, Munoz P, Rizk H, Kanj SS, Selton-Suty C, Sexton DJ, Spelman D, Ravasio V, Tripodi MF, Wang A, International Collaboration on Endocarditis-Prospective Cohort Study Investigators . 2013. In-hospital and 1-year mortality in patients undergoing early surgery for prosthetic valve endocarditis. JAMA Intern Med173:1495–1504. doi: 10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.8203. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
152. Wolff M, Witchitz S, Chastang C, Regnier B, Vachon F. 1995. Prosthetic valve endocarditis in the ICU. Prognostic factors of overall survival in a series of 122 cases and consequences for treatment decision. Chest108:688–694. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
153. El-Ahdab F, Benjamin DK Jr, Wang A, Cabell CH, Chu VH, Stryjewski ME, Corey GR, Sexton DJ, Reller LB, Fowler VG Jr. 2005. Risk of endocarditis among patients with prosthetic valves and Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Am J Med118:225–229. doi: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2004.12.017. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
154. Fang G, Keys TF, Gentry LO, Harris AA, Rivera N, Getz K, Fuchs PC, Gustafson M, Wong ES, Goetz A, Wagener MM, Yu VL. 1993. Prosthetic valve endocarditis resulting from nosocomial bacteremia. A prospective, multicenter study. Ann Intern Med119:560–567. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
155. Que YA, Moreillon P. 2011. Infective endocarditis. Nat Rev Cardiol8:322–336. doi: 10.1038/nrcardio.2011.43. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
156. Patti JM, Allen BL, McGavin MJ, Hook M. 1994. MSCRAMM-mediated adherence of microorganisms to host tissues. Annu Rev Microbiol48:585–617. doi: 10.1146/annurev.mi.48.100194.003101. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
157. Que YA, Haefliger JA, Piroth L, Francois P, Widmer E, Entenza JM, Sinha B, Herrmann M, Francioli P, Vaudaux P, Moreillon P. 2005. Fibrinogen and fibronectin binding cooperate for valve infection and invasion in Staphylococcus aureus experimental endocarditis. J Exp Med201:1627–1635. doi: 10.1084/jem.20050125. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
158. Piroth L, Que YA, Widmer E, Panchaud A, Piu S, Entenza JM, Moreillon P. 2008. The fibrinogen- and fibronectin-binding domains of Staphylococcus aureus fibronectin-binding protein A synergistically promote endothelial invasion and experimental endocarditis. Infect Immun76:3824–3831. doi: 10.1128/IAI.00405-08. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
159. Fitzgerald JR, Loughman A, Keane F, Brennan M, Knobel M, Higgins J, Visai L, Speziale P, Cox D, Foster TJ. 2006. Fibronectin-binding proteins of Staphylococcus aureus mediate activation of human platelets via fibrinogen and fibronectin bridges to integrin GPIIb/IIIa and IgG binding to the FcgammaRIIa receptor. Mol Microbiol59:212–230. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.2005.04922.x. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
160. O'Brien L, Kerrigan SW, Kaw G, Hogan M, Penades J, Litt D, Fitzgerald DJ, Foster TJ, Cox D. 2002. Multiple mechanisms for the activation of human platelet aggregation by Staphylococcus aureus: roles for the clumping factors ClfA and ClfB, the serine-aspartate repeat protein SdrE and protein A. Mol Microbiol44:1033–1044. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2958.2002.02935.x. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
161. Veloso TR, Chaouch A, Roger T, Giddey M, Vouillamoz J, Majcherczyk P, Que YA, Rousson V, Moreillon P, Entenza JM. 2013. Use of a human-like low-grade bacteremia model of experimental endocarditis to study the role of Staphylococcus aureus adhesins and platelet aggregation in early endocarditis. Infect Immun81:697–703. doi: 10.1128/IAI.01030-12. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
162. Que YA, Francois P, Haefliger JA, Entenza JM, Vaudaux P, Moreillon P. 2001. Reassessing the role of Staphylococcus aureus clumping factor and fibronectin-binding protein by expression in Lactococcus lactis. Infect Immun69:6296–6302. doi: 10.1128/IAI.69.10.6296-6302.2001. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
163. Pappelbaum KI, Gorzelanny C, Grassle S, Suckau J, Laschke MW, Bischoff M, Bauer C, Schorpp-Kistner M, Weidenmaier C, Schneppenheim R, Obser T, Sinha B, Schneider SW. 2013. Ultralarge von Willebrand factor fibers mediate luminal Staphylococcus aureus adhesion to an intact endothelial cell layer under shear stress. Circulation128:50–59. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.113.002008. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
164. Vanassche T, Kauskot A, Verhaegen J, Peetermans WE, van Ryn J, Schneewind O, Hoylaerts MF, Verhamme P. 2012. Fibrin formation by staphylothrombin facilitates Staphylococcus aureus-induced platelet aggregation. Thromb Haemost107:1107–1121. doi: 10.1160/TH11-12-0891. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
165. Salgado-Pabon W, Breshears L, Spaulding AR, Merriman JA, Stach CS, Horswill AR, Peterson ML, Schlievert PM. 2013. Superantigens are critical for Staphylococcus aureus infective endocarditis, sepsis, and acute kidney injury. mBio4(4):e00494-13. doi: 10.1128/mBio.00494-13. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
166. Fowler VG Jr, Nelson CL, McIntyre LM, Kreiswirth BN, Monk A, Archer GL, Federspiel J, Naidich S, Remortel B, Rude T, Brown P, Reller LB, Corey GR, Gill SR. 2007. Potential associations between hematogenous complications and bacterial genotype in Staphylococcus aureus infection. J Infect Dis196:738–747. doi: 10.1086/520088. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
167. Nienaber JJ, Sharma Kuinkel BK, Clarke-Pearson M, Lamlertthon S, Park L, Rude TH, Barriere S, Woods CW, Chu VH, Marin M, Bukovski S, Garcia P, Corey GR, Korman T, Doco-Lecompte T, Murdoch DR, Reller LB, Fowler VG Jr. 2011. Methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis isolates are associated with clonal complex 30 genotype and a distinct repertoire of enterotoxins and adhesins. J Infect Dis204:704–713. doi: 10.1093/infdis/jir389. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
168. Miller CE, Batra R, Cooper BS, Patel AK, Klein J, Otter JA, Kypraios T, French GL, Tosas O, Edgeworth JD. 2012. An association between bacterial genotype combined with a high-vancomycin minimum inhibitory concentration and risk of endocarditis in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream infection. Clin Infect Dis54:591–600. doi: 10.1093/cid/cir858. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
169. Spaulding AR, Satterwhite EA, Lin YC, Chuang-Smith ON, Frank KL, Merriman JA, Schaefers MM, Yarwood JM, Peterson ML, Schlievert PM. 2012. Comparison of Staphylococcus aureus strains for ability to cause infective endocarditis and lethal sepsis in rabbits. Front Cell Infect Microbiol2:18. doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2012.00018. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
170. Roder BL, Wandall DA, Frimodt-Moller N, Espersen F, Skinhoj P, Rosdahl VT. 1999. Clinical features of Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis: a 10-year experience in Denmark. Arch Intern Med159:462–469. doi: 10.1001/archinte.159.5.462. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
171. Nadji G, Remadi JP, Coviaux F, Mirode AA, Brahim A, Enriquez-Sarano M, Tribouilloy C. 2005. Comparison of clinical and morphological characteristics of Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis with endocarditis caused by other pathogens. Heart91:932–937. doi: 10.1136/hrt.2004.042648. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
172. Rogers BA, Drake AK, Spelman D. 2009. Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis in an Australian tertiary hospital: 1991-2006. Heart Lung Circ18:208–213. doi: 10.1016/j.hlc.2008.10.016. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
173. Ruotsalainen E, Sammalkorpi K, Laine J, Huotari K, Sarna S, Valtonen V, Jarvinen A. 2006. Clinical manifestations and outcome in Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis among injection drug users and nonaddicts: a prospective study of 74 patients. BMC Infect Dis6:137. doi: 10.1186/1471-2334-6-137. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
174. Slaughter L, Morris JE, Starr A. 1973. Prosthetic valvular endocarditis. A 12-year review. Circulation47:1319–1326. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
175. Ben Ismail M, Hannachi N, Abid F, Kaabar Z, Rouge JF. 1987. Prosthetic valve endocarditis. A survey. Br Heart J58:72–77. doi: 10.1136/hrt.58.1.72. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
176. Tornos P, Almirante B, Olona M, Permanyer G, Gonzalez T, Carballo J, Pahissa A, Soler-Soler J. 1997. Clinical outcome and long-term prognosis of late prosthetic valve endocarditis: a 20-year experience. Clin Infect Dis24:381–386. doi: 10.1093/clinids/24.3.381. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
177. Sohail MR, Martin KR, Wilson WR, Baddour LM, Harmsen WS, Steckelberg JM. 2006. Medical versus surgical management of Staphylococcus aureus prosthetic valve endocarditis. Am J Med119:147–154. doi: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2005.09.037. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
178. Fournier PE, Casalta JP, Habib G, Messana T, Raoult D. 1996. Modification of the diagnostic criteria proposed by the Duke Endocarditis Service to permit improved diagnosis of Q fever endocarditis. Am J Med100:629–633. doi: 10.1016/S0002-9343(96)00040-X. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
179. Goldenberger D, Kunzli A, Vogt P, Zbinden R, Altwegg M. 1997. Molecular diagnosis of bacterial endocarditis by broad-range PCR amplification and direct sequencing. J Clin Microbiol35:2733–2739. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
180. Morel AS, Dubourg G, Prudent E, Edouard S, Gouriet F, Casalta JP, Fenollar F, Fournier PE, Drancourt M, Raoult D. 2015. Complementarity between targeted real-time specific PCR and conventional broad-range 16S rDNA PCR in the syndrome-driven diagnosis of infectious diseases. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis34:561–570. doi: 10.1007/s10096-014-2263-z. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
181. Harris KA, Yam T, Jalili S, Williams OM, Alshafi K, Gouliouris T, Munthali P, NiRiain U, Hartley JC. 2014. Service evaluation to establish the sensitivity, specificity and additional value of broad-range 16S rDNA PCR for the diagnosis of infective endocarditis from resected endocardial material in patients from eight UK and Ireland hospitals. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis33:2061–2066. doi: 10.1007/s10096-014-2145-4. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
182. Chirouze C, Cabell CH, Fowler VG Jr, Khayat N, Olaison L, Miro JM, Habib G, Abrutyn E, Eykyn S, Corey GR, Selton-Suty C, Hoen B, International Collaboration on Endocarditis Study Group . 2004. Prognostic factors in 61 cases of Staphylococcus aureus prosthetic valve infective endocarditis from the International Collaboration on Endocarditis merged database. Clin Infect Dis38:1323–1327. doi: 10.1086/383035. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
183. John MD, Hibberd PL, Karchmer AW, Sleeper LA, Calderwood SB. 1998. Staphylococcus aureus prosthetic valve endocarditis: optimal management and risk factors for death. Clin Infect Dis26:1302–1309. doi: 10.1086/516378. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
184. Habib G, Hoen B, Tornos P, Thuny F, Prendergast B, Vilacosta I, Moreillon P, de Jesus Antunes M, Thilen U, Lekakis J, Lengyel M, Muller L, Naber CK, Nihoyannopoulos P, Moritz A, Zamorano JL, ESC Committee for Practice Guidelines . 2009. Guidelines on the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of infective endocarditis (new version 2009): the Task Force on the Prevention, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Infective Endocarditis of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Endorsed by the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID) and the International Society of Chemotherapy (ISC) for Infection and Cancer. Eur Heart J30:2369–2413. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehp285. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
185. Baddour LM, Wilson WR, Bayer AS, Fowler VG Jr, Bolger AF, Levison ME, Ferrieri P, Gerber MA, Tani LY, Gewitz MH, Tong DC, Steckelberg JM, Baltimore RS, Shulman ST, Burns JC, Falace DA, Newburger JW, Pallasch TJ, Takahashi M, Taubert KA, Committee on Rheumatic Fever, Endocarditis, and Kawasaki Disease, Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, Councils on Clinical Cardiology, Stroke, and Cardiovascular Surgery and Anesthesia, American Heart Association, Infectious Diseases Society of America . 2005. Infective endocarditis: diagnosis, antimicrobial therapy, and management of complications. A statement for healthcare professionals from the Committee on Rheumatic Fever, Endocarditis, and Kawasaki Disease, Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, and the Councils on Clinical Cardiology, Stroke, and Cardiovascular Surgery and Anesthesia, American Heart Association: endorsed by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Circulation111:e394–e434. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.165564. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
186. Dohmen PM, Guleri A, Capone A, Utili R, Seaton RA, Gonzalez-Ramallo VJ, Pathan R, Heep M, Chaves RL. 2013. Daptomycin for the treatment of infective endocarditis: results from a European registry. J Antimicrob Chemother68:936–942. doi: 10.1093/jac/dks467. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
187. Kullar R, Casapao AM, Davis SL, Levine DP, Zhao JJ, Crank CW, Segreti J, Sakoulas G, Cosgrove SE, Rybak MJ. 2013. A multicentre evaluation of the effectiveness and safety of high-dose daptomycin for the treatment of infective endocarditis. J Antimicrob Chemother68:2921–2926. doi: 10.1093/jac/dkt294. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
188. Carugati M, Bayer AS, Miro JM, Park LP, Guimaraes AC, Skoutelis A, Fortes CQ, Durante-Mangoni E, Hannan MM, Nacinovich F, Fernandez-Hidalgo N, Grossi P, Tan RS, Holland T, Fowler VG Jr, Corey RG, Chu VH, International Collaboration on Endocarditis . 2013. High-dose daptomycin therapy for left-sided infective endocarditis: a prospective study from the International Collaboration on Endocarditis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother57:6213–6222. doi: 10.1128/AAC.01563-13. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
189. Sharma M, Riederer K, Chase P, Khatib R. 2008. High rate of decreasing daptomycin susceptibility during the treatment of persistent Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis27:433–437. doi: 10.1007/s10096-007-0455-5. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
190. Gasch O, Camoez M, Dominguez MA, Padilla B, Pintado V, Almirante B, Martin C, Lopez-Medrano F, de Gopegui ER, Blanco JR, Garcia-Pardo G, Calbo E, Montero M, Granados A, Jover A, Duenas C, Pujol M, REIPI/GEIH Study Groups . 2014. Emergence of resistance to daptomycin in a cohort of patients with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus persistent bacteraemia treated with daptomycin. J Antimicrob Chemother69:568–571. doi: 10.1093/jac/dkt396. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
191. Rose WE, Leonard SN, Rybak MJ. 2008. Evaluation of daptomycin pharmacodynamics and resistance at various dosage regimens against Staphylococcus aureus isolates with reduced susceptibilities to daptomycin in an in vitro pharmacodynamic model with simulated endocardial vegetations. Antimicrob Agents Chemother52:3061–3067. doi: 10.1128/AAC.00102-08. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
192. Baltch AL, Ritz WJ, Bopp LH, Michelsen P, Smith RP. 2008. Activities of daptomycin and comparative antimicrobials, singly and in combination, against extracellular and intracellular Staphylococcus aureus and its stable small-colony variant in human monocyte-derived macrophages and in broth. Antimicrob Agents Chemother52:1829–1833. doi: 10.1128/AAC.01480-07. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
193. Baltch AL, Ritz WJ, Bopp LH, Michelsen PB, Smith RP. 2007. Antimicrobial activities of daptomycin, vancomycin, and oxacillin in human monocytes and of daptomycin in combination with gentamicin and/or rifampin in human monocytes and in broth against Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother51:1559–1562. doi: 10.1128/AAC.00973-06. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
194. Credito K, Lin G, Appelbaum PC. 2007. Activity of daptomycin alone and in combination with rifampin and gentamicin against Staphylococcus aureus assessed by time-kill methodology. Antimicrob Agents Chemother51:1504–1507. doi: 10.1128/AAC.01455-06. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
195. Entenza JM, Giddey M, Vouillamoz J, Moreillon P. 2010. In vitro prevention of the emergence of daptomycin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus and enterococci following combination with amoxicillin/clavulanic acid or ampicillin. Int J Antimicrob Agents35:451–456. doi: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2009.12.022. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
196. LaPlante KL, Woodmansee S. 2009. Activities of daptomycin and vancomycin alone and in combination with rifampin and gentamicin against biofilm-forming methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates in an experimental model of endocarditis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother53:3880–3886. doi: 10.1128/AAC.00134-09. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
197. Tsuji BT, Rybak MJ. 2005. Short-course gentamicin in combination with daptomycin or vancomycin against Staphylococcus aureus in an in vitro pharmacodynamic model with simulated endocardial vegetations. Antimicrob Agents Chemother49:2735–2745. doi: 10.1128/AAC.49.7.2735-2745.2005. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
198. Miro JM, Garcia-de-la-Maria C, Armero Y, Soy D, Moreno A, del Rio A, Almela M, Sarasa M, Mestres CA, Gatell JM, Jimenez de Anta MT, Marco F, Hospital Clinic Experimental Endocarditis Study Group . 2009. Addition of gentamicin or rifampin does not enhance the effectiveness of daptomycin in treatment of experimental endocarditis due to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother53:4172–4177. doi: 10.1128/AAC.00051-09. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
199. Leonard SN, Rolek KM. 2013. Evaluation of the combination of daptomycin and nafcillin against vancomycin-intermediate Staphylococcus aureus. J Antimicrob Chemother68:644–647. doi: 10.1093/jac/dks453. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
200. Mehta S, Singh C, Plata KB, Chanda PK, Paul A, Riosa S, Rosato RR, Rosato AE. 2012. Beta-lactams increase the antibacterial activity of daptomycin against clinical methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains and prevent selection of daptomycin-resistant derivatives. Antimicrob Agents Chemother56:6192–6200. doi: 10.1128/AAC.01525-12. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
201. Steed ME, Vidaillac C, Rybak MJ. 2010. Novel daptomycin combinations against daptomycin-nonsusceptible methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in an in vitro model of simulated endocardial vegetations. Antimicrob Agents Chemother54:5187–5192. doi: 10.1128/AAC.00536-10. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
202. Rose WE, Schulz LT, Andes D, Striker R, Berti AD, Hutson PR, Shukla SK. 2012. Addition of ceftaroline to daptomycin after emergence of daptomycin-nonsusceptible Staphylococcus aureus during therapy improves antibacterial activity. Antimicrob Agents Chemother56:5296–5302. doi: 10.1128/AAC.00797-12. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
203. Werth BJ, Sakoulas G, Rose WE, Pogliano J, Tewhey R, Rybak MJ. 2013. Ceftaroline increases membrane binding and enhances the activity of daptomycin against daptomycin-nonsusceptible vancomycin-intermediate Staphylococcus aureus in a pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic model. Antimicrob Agents Chemother57:66–73. doi: 10.1128/AAC.01586-12. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
204. Yang SJ, Xiong YQ, Boyle-Vavra S, Daum R, Jones T, Bayer AS. 2010. Daptomycin-oxacillin combinations in treatment of experimental endocarditis caused by daptomycin-nonsusceptible strains of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus with evolving oxacillin susceptibility (the “seesaw effect”). Antimicrob Agents Chemother54:3161–3169. doi: 10.1128/AAC.00487-10. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
205. Rose WE, Berti AD, Hatch JB, Maki DG. 2013. Relationship of in vitro synergy and treatment outcome with daptomycin plus rifampin in patients with invasive methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections. Antimicrob Agents Chemother57:3450–3452. doi: 10.1128/AAC.00325-12. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
206. Di Carlo P, D'Alessandro N, Guadagnino G, Bonura C, Mammina C, Lunetta M, Novo S, Giarratano A. 2013. High dose of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole and daptomycin as a therapeutic option for MRSA endocarditis with large vegetation complicated by embolic stroke: a case report and literature review. Infez Med21:45–49. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
207. Avery LM, Steed ME, Woodruff AE, Hasan M, Rybak MJ. 2012. Daptomycin-nonsusceptible vancomycin-intermediate Staphylococcus aureus vertebral osteomyelitis cases complicated by bacteremia treated with high-dose daptomycin and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. Antimicrob Agents Chemother56:5990–5993. doi: 10.1128/AAC.01046-12. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
208. Miro JM, Entenza JM, Del Rio A, Velasco M, Castaneda X, Garcia de la Maria C, Giddey M, Armero Y, Pericas JM, Cervera C, Mestres CA, Almela M, Falces C, Marco F, Moreillon P, Moreno A, Hospital Clinic Experimental Endocarditis Study Group . 2012. High-dose daptomycin plus fosfomycin is safe and effective in treating methicillin-susceptible and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother56:4511–4515. doi: 10.1128/AAC.06449-11. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
209. Chen LY, Huang CH, Kuo SC, Hsiao CY, Lin ML, Wang FD, Fung CP. 2011. High-dose daptomycin and fosfomycin treatment of a patient with endocarditis caused by daptomycin-nonsusceptible Staphylococcus aureus: case report. BMC Infect Dis11:152. doi: 10.1186/1471-2334-11-152. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
210. Dhand A, Bayer AS, Pogliano J, Yang SJ, Bolaris M, Nizet V, Wang G, Sakoulas G. 2011. Use of antistaphylococcal beta-lactams to increase daptomycin activity in eradicating persistent bacteremia due to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: role of enhanced daptomycin binding. Clin Infect Dis53:158–163. doi: 10.1093/cid/cir340. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
211. Moise PA, Amodio-Groton M, Rashid M, Lamp KC, Hoffman-Roberts HL, Sakoulas G, Yoon MJ, Schweitzer S, Rastogi A. 2013. Multicenter evaluation of the clinical outcomes of daptomycin with and without concomitant beta-lactams in patients with Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia and mild to moderate renal impairment. Antimicrob Agents Chemother57:1192–1200. doi: 10.1128/AAC.02192-12. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
212. Moise PA, North D, Steenbergen JN, Sakoulas G. 2009. Susceptibility relationship between vancomycin and daptomycin in Staphylococcus aureus: facts and assumptions. Lancet Infect Dis9:617–624. doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(09)70200-2. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
213. Karchmer AW, Archer GL, Dismukes WE. 1983. Rifampin treatment of prosthetic valve endocarditis due to Staphylococcus epidermidis. Rev Infect Dis5(Suppl 3):S543–S548. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
214. Karchmer AW, Archer GL, Dismukes WE. 1983. Staphylococcus epidermidis causing prosthetic valve endocarditis: microbiologic and clinical observations as guides to therapy. Ann Intern Med98:447–455. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-98-4-447. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
215. Riedel DJ, Weekes E, Forrest GN. 2008. Addition of rifampin to standard therapy for treatment of native valve infective endocarditis caused by Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother52:2463–2467. doi: 10.1128/AAC.00300-08. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
216. Cosgrove SE, Vigliani GA, Fowler VG Jr, Abrutyn E, Corey GR, Levine DP, Rupp ME, Chambers HF, Karchmer AW, Boucher HW. 2009. Initial low-dose gentamicin for Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia and endocarditis is nephrotoxic. Clin Infect Dis48:713–721. doi: 10.1086/597031. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
217. Aksoy O, Sexton DJ, Wang A, Pappas PA, Kourany W, Chu V, Fowler VG Jr, Woods CW, Engemann JJ, Corey GR, Harding T, Cabell CH. 2007. Early surgery in patients with infective endocarditis: a propensity score analysis. Clin Infect Dis44:364–372. doi: 10.1086/510583. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
218. Vikram HR, Buenconsejo J, Hasbun R, Quagliarello VJ. 2003. Impact of valve surgery on 6-month mortality in adults with complicated, left-sided native valve endocarditis: a propensity analysis. JAMA290:3207–3214. doi: 10.1001/jama.290.24.3207. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
219. Tleyjeh IM, Ghomrawi HM, Steckelberg JM, Hoskin TL, Mirzoyev Z, Anavekar NS, Enders F, Moustafa S, Mookadam F, Huskins WC, Wilson WR, Baddour LM. 2007. The impact of valve surgery on 6-month mortality in left-sided infective endocarditis. Circulation115:1721–1728. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.658831. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
220. Cabell CH, Abrutyn E, Fowler VG Jr, Hoen B, Miro JM, Corey GR, Olaison L, Pappas P, Anstrom KJ, Stafford JA, Eykyn S, Habib G, Mestres CA, Wang A. 2005. Use of surgery in patients with native valve infective endocarditis: results from the International Collaboration on Endocarditis merged database. Am Heart J150:1092–1098. doi: 10.1016/j.ahj.2005.03.057. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
221. Sy RW, Bannon PG, Bayfield MS, Brown C, Kritharides L. 2009. Survivor treatment selection bias and outcomes research: a case study of surgery in infective endocarditis. Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes2:469–474. doi: 10.1161/CIRCOUTCOMES.109.857938. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
222. Tleyjeh IM, Baddour LM. 2007. The potential impact of survivor treatment selection bias on the perceived efficacy of valve surgery in the treatment of infective endocarditis. Clin Infect Dis44:1392–1393. doi: 10.1086/516609. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
223. Tleyjeh IM, Kashour T, Zimmerman V, Steckelberg JM, Wilson WR, Baddour LM. 2008. The role of valve surgery in infective endocarditis management: a systematic review of observational studies that included propensity score analysis. Am Heart J156:901–909. doi: 10.1016/j.ahj.2008.06.031. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
224. Lalani T, Cabell CH, Benjamin DK, Lasca O, Naber C, Fowler VG Jr, Corey GR, Chu VH, Fenely M, Pachirat O, Tan RS, Watkin R, Ionac A, Moreno A, Mestres CA, Casabe J, Chipigina N, Eisen DP, Spelman D, Delahaye F, Peterson G, Olaison L, Wang A. 2010. Analysis of the impact of early surgery on in-hospital mortality of native valve endocarditis: use of propensity score and instrumental variable methods to adjust for treatment-selection bias. Circulation121:1005–1013. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.864488. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
225. Kang DH, Kim YJ, Kim SH, Sun BJ, Kim DH, Yun SC, Song JM, Choo SJ, Chung CH, Song JK, Lee JW, Sohn DW. 2012. Early surgery versus conventional treatment for infective endocarditis. N Engl J Med366:2466–2473. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1112843. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
226. Rossi M, Gallo A, De Silva RJ, Sayeed R. 2012. What is the optimal timing for surgery in infective endocarditis with cerebrovascular complications?Interact Cardiovasc Thorac Surg14:72–80. doi: 10.1093/icvts/ivr010. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
227. Tleyjeh IM, Baddour LM. 2013. Early cardiac surgery after ischemic stroke in patients with infective endocarditis may not be safe. Clin Infect Dis56:1844–1845. doi: 10.1093/cid/cit097. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
228. Barsic B, Dickerman S, Krajinovic V, Pappas P, Altclas J, Carosi G, Casabe JH, Chu VH, Delahaye F, Edathodu J, Fortes CQ, Olaison L, Pangercic A, Patel M, Rudez I, Tamin SS, Vincelj J, Bayer AS, Wang A, International Collaboration on Endocarditis-Prospective Cohort Study Investigators . 2013. Influence of the timing of cardiac surgery on the outcome of patients with infective endocarditis and stroke. Clin Infect Dis56:209–217. doi: 10.1093/cid/cis878. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
229. Bishara J, Leibovici L, Gartman-Israel D, Sagie A, Kazakov A, Miroshnik E, Ashkenazi S, Pitlik S. 2001. Long-term outcome of infective endocarditis: the impact of early surgical intervention. Clin Infect Dis33:1636–1643. doi: 10.1086/323785. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
230. Wang A, Pappas P, Anstrom KJ, Abrutyn E, Fowler VG Jr, Hoen B, Miro JM, Corey GR, Olaison L, Stafford JA, Mestres CA, Cabell CH. 2005. The use and effect of surgical therapy for prosthetic valve infective endocarditis: a propensity analysis of a multicenter, international cohort. Am Heart J150:1086–1091. doi: 10.1016/j.ahj.2005.01.023. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
231. Yu VL, Fang GD, Keys TF, Harris AA, Gentry LO, Fuchs PC, Wagener MM, Wong ES. 1994. Prosthetic valve endocarditis: superiority of surgical valve replacement versus medical therapy only. Ann Thorac Surg58:1073–1077. doi: 10.1016/0003-4975(94)90458-8. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
232. Truninger K, Attenhofer Jost CH, Seifert B, Vogt PR, Follath F, Schaffner A, Jenni R. 1999. Long term follow up of prosthetic valve endocarditis: what characteristics identify patients who were treated successfully with antibiotics alone?Heart82:714–720. doi: 10.1136/hrt.82.6.714. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
233. Chirouze C, Alla F, Fowler VG Jr, Sexton DJ, Corey GR, Chu VH, Wang A, Erpelding ML, Durante-Mangoni E, Fernandez-Hidalgo N, Giannitsioti E, Hannan MM, Lejko-Zupanc T, Miro JM, Munoz P, Murdoch DR, Tattevin P, Tribouilloy C, Hoen B, ICE Prospective Investigators . 2015. Impact of early valve surgery on outcome of Staphylococcus aureus prosthetic valve infective endocarditis: analysis in the International Collaboration of Endocarditis-Prospective Cohort Study. Clin Infect Dis60:741–749. doi: 10.1093/cid/ciu871. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
234. DeLeo FR, Otto M, Kreiswirth BN, Chambers HF. 2010. Community-associated meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Lancet375:1557–1568. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61999-1. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
235. Otto M.2013. Community-associated MRSA: what makes them special?Int J Med Microbiol303:324–330. doi: 10.1016/j.ijmm.2013.02.007. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
236. David MZ, Daum RS. 2010. Community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: epidemiology and clinical consequences of an emerging epidemic. Clin Microbiol Rev23:616–687. doi: 10.1128/CMR.00081-09. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
237. Herold BC, Immergluck LC, Maranan MC, Lauderdale DS, Gaskin RE, Boyle-Vavra S, Leitch CD, Daum RS. 1998. Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in children with no identified predisposing risk. JAMA279:593–598. doi: 10.1001/jama.279.8.593. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
238. Frank AL, Marcinak JF, Mangat PD, Schreckenberger PC. 1999. Community-acquired and clindamycin-susceptible methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J18:993–1000. doi: 10.1097/00006454-199911000-00012. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
239. Groom AV, Wolsey DH, Naimi TS, Smith K, Johnson S, Boxrud D, Moore KA, Cheek JE. 2001. Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a rural American Indian community. JAMA286:1201–1205. doi: 10.1001/jama.286.10.1201. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
240. Fergie JE, Purcell K. 2001. Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in south Texas children. Pediatr Infect Dis J20:860–863. doi: 10.1097/00006454-200109000-00007. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
241. Dufour P, Gillet Y, Bes M, Lina G, Vandenesch F, Floret D, Etienne J, Richet H. 2002. Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in France: emergence of a single clone that produces Panton-Valentine leukocidin. Clin Infect Dis35:819–824. doi: 10.1086/342576. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
242. Baggett HC, Hennessy TW, Leman R, Hamlin C, Bruden D, Reasonover A, Martinez P, Butler JC. 2003. An outbreak of community-onset methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus skin infections in Southwestern Alaska. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol24:397–402. doi: 10.1086/502221. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
243. Buckingham SC, McDougal LK, Cathey LD, Comeaux K, Craig AS, Fridkin SK, Tenover FC. 2004. Emergence of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus at a Memphis, Tennessee children's hospital. Pediatr Infect Dis J23:619–624. doi: 10.1097/01.inf.0000131981.67342.c4. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
244. Wang CC, Lo WT, Chu ML, Siu LK. 2004. Epidemiological typing of community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates from children in Taiwan. Clin Infect Dis39:481–487. doi: 10.1086/422642. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
245. Dietrich DW, Auld DB, Mermel LA. 2004. Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in southern New England children. Pediatrics113:e347–e352. doi: 10.1542/peds.113.4.e347. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
246. Hisata K, Kuwahara-Arai K, Yamanoto M, Ito T, Nakatomi Y, Cui L, Baba T, Terasawa M, Sotozono C, Kinoshita S, Yamashiro Y, Hiramatsu K. 2005. Dissemination of methicillin-resistant staphylococci among healthy Japanese children. J Clin Microbiol43:3364–3372. doi: 10.1128/JCM.43.7.3364-3372.2005. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
247. Fridkin SK, Hageman JC, Morrison M, Sanza LT, Como-Sabetti K, Jernigan JA, Harriman K, Harrison LH, Lynfield R, Farley MM. 2005. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus disease in three communities. N Engl J Med352:1436–1444. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa043252. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
248. Kaplan SL, Hulten KG, Gonzalez BE, Hammerman WA, Lamberth L, Versalovic J, Mason EO Jr. 2005. Three-year surveillance of community-acquired Staphylococcus aureus infections in children. Clin Infect Dis40:1785–1791. doi: 10.1086/430312. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
249. Chen AE, Goldstein M, Carroll K, Song X, Perl TM, Siberry GK. 2006. Evolving epidemiology of pediatric Staphylococcus aureus cutaneous infections in a Baltimore hospital. Pediatr Emerg Care22:717–723. doi: 10.1097/01.pec.0000236832.23947.a0. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
250. Udo EE, Pearman JW, Grubb WB. 1993. Genetic analysis of community isolates of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Western Australia. J Hosp Infect25:97–108. doi: 10.1016/0195-6701(93)90100-E. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
251. Nimmo GR, Coombs GW, Pearson JC, O'Brien FG, Christiansen KJ, Turnidge JD, Gosbell IB, Collignon P, McLaws ML. 2006. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in the Australian community: an evolving epidemic. Med J Aust184:384–388. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
252. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2003. Outbreaks of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus skin infections—Los Angeles County, California, 2002-2003. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep52:88. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
253. Kazakova SV, Hageman JC, Matava M, Srinivasan A, Phelan L, Garfinkel B, Boo T, McAllister S, Anderson J, Jensen B, Dodson D, Lonsway D, McDougal LK, Arduino M, Fraser VJ, Killgore G, Tenover FC, Cody S, Jernigan DB. 2005. A clone of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus among professional football players. N Engl J Med352:468–475. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa042859. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
254. Begier EM, Frenette K, Barrett NL, Mshar P, Petit S, Boxrud DJ, Watkins-Colwell K, Wheeler S, Cebelinski EA, Glennen A, Nguyen D, Hadler JL. 2004. A high-morbidity outbreak of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus among players on a college football team, facilitated by cosmetic body shaving and turf burns. Clin Infect Dis39:1446–1453. doi: 10.1086/425313. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
255. Young DM, Harris HW, Charlebois ED, Chambers H, Campbell A, Perdreau-Remington F, Lee C, Mankani M, Mackersie R, Schecter WP. 2004. An epidemic of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus soft tissue infections among medically underserved patients. Arch Surg139:947–951. doi: 10.1001/archsurg.139.9.947. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
256. Kallen AJ, Driscoll TJ, Thornton S, Olson PE, Wallace MR. 2000. Increase in community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus at a naval medical center. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol21:223–226. doi: 10.1086/501750. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
257. Zinderman CE, Conner B, Malakooti MA, LaMar JE, Armstrong A, Bohnker BK. 2004. Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus among military recruits. Emerg Infect Dis10:941–944. doi: 10.3201/eid1005.030604. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
258. Crum NF, Lee RU, Thornton SA, Stine OC, Wallace MR, Barrozo C, Keefer-Norris A, Judd S, Russell KL. 2006. Fifteen-year study of the changing epidemiology of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Am J Med119:943–951. doi: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2006.01.004. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
259. Tong SY, McDonald MI, Holt DC, Currie BJ. 2008. Global implications of the emergence of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in indigenous populations. Clin Infect Dis46:1871–1878. doi: 10.1086/588301. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
260. Pallin DJ, Egan DJ, Pelletier AJ, Espinola JA, Hooper DC, Camargo CA Jr. 2008. Increased US emergency department visits for skin and soft tissue infections, and changes in antibiotic choices, during the emergence of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Ann Emerg Med51:291–298. doi: 10.1016/j.annemergmed.2007.12.004. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
261. Hersh AL, Chambers HF, Maselli JH, Gonzales R. 2008. National trends in ambulatory visits and antibiotic prescribing for skin and soft-tissue infections. Arch Intern Med168:1585–1591. doi: 10.1001/archinte.168.14.1585. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
262. Edelsberg J, Taneja C, Zervos M, Haque N, Moore C, Reyes K, Spalding J, Jiang J, Oster G. 2009. Trends in US hospital admissions for skin and soft tissue infections. Emerg Infect Dis15:1516–1518. doi: 10.3201/eid1509.081228. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
263. Frei CR, Makos BR, Daniels KR, Oramasionwu CU. 2010. Emergence of community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus skin and soft tissue infections as a common cause of hospitalization in United States children. J Pediatr Surg45:1967–1974. doi: 10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2010.05.009. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
264. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1999. Four pediatric deaths from community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus—Minnesota and North Dakota, 1997-1999. JAMA282:1123–1125. doi: 10.1001/jama.282.12.1123-JWR0922-2-1. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
265. King MD, Humphrey BJ, Wang YF, Kourbatova EV, Ray SM, Blumberg HM. 2006. Emergence of community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus USA 300 clone as the predominant cause of skin and soft-tissue infections. Ann Intern Med144:309–317. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-144-5-200603070-00005. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
266. Moran GJ, Krishnadasan A, Gorwitz RJ, Fosheim GE, McDougal LK, Carey RB, Talan DA. 2006. Methicillin-resistant S. aureus infections among patients in the emergency department. N Engl J Med355:666–674. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa055356. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
267. Frazee BW, Lynn J, Charlebois ED, Lambert L, Lowery D, Perdreau-Remington F. 2005. High prevalence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in emergency department skin and soft tissue infections. Ann Emerg Med45:311–320. doi: 10.1016/j.annemergmed.2004.10.011. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
268. Hasty MB, Klasner A, Kness S, Denmark TK, Ellis D, Herman MI, Brown L. 2007. Cutaneous community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus among all skin and soft-tissue infections in two geographically distant pediatric emergency departments. Acad Emerg Med14:35–40. doi: 10.1197/j.aem.2006.08.008. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
269. Jacobus CH, Lindsell CJ, Leach SD, Fermann GJ, Kressel AB, Rue LE. 2007. Prevalence and demographics of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus in culturable skin and soft tissue infections in an urban emergency department. BMC Emerg Med7:19. doi: 10.1186/1471-227X-7-19. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
270. Talan DA, Krishnadasan A, Gorwitz RJ, Fosheim GE, Limbago B, Albrecht V, Moran GJ, EMERGEncy ID Net Study Group . 2011. Comparison of Staphylococcus aureus from skin and soft-tissue infections in US emergency department patients, 2004 and 2008. Clin Infect Dis53:144–149. doi: 10.1093/cid/cir308. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
271. Hayward A, Knott F, Petersen I, Livermore DM, Duckworth G, Islam A, Johnson AM. 2008. Increasing hospitalizations and general practice prescriptions for community-onset staphylococcal disease, England. Emerg Infect Dis14:720–726. doi: 10.3201/eid1405.070153. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
272. Saxena S, Thompson P, Birger R, Bottle A, Spyridis N, Wong I, Johnson AP, Gilbert R, Sharland M, Improving Children's Antibiotic Prescribing Group . 2010. Increasing skin infections and Staphylococcus aureus complications in children, England, 1997-2006. Emerg Infect Dis16:530–533. doi: 10.3201/eid1603.090809. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
273. Vaska VL, Nimmo GR, Jones M, Grimwood K, Paterson DL. 2012. Increases in Australian cutaneous abscess hospitalisations: 1999-2008. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis31:93–96. doi: 10.1007/s10096-011-1281-3. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
274. Otter JA, French GL. 2010. Molecular epidemiology of community-associated meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Europe. Lancet Infect Dis10:227–239. doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(10)70053-0. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
275. DeLeo FR, Diep BA, Otto M. 2009. Host defense and pathogenesis in Staphylococcus aureus infections. Infect Dis Clin North Am23:17–34. doi: 10.1016/j.idc.2008.10.003. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
276. Foster TJ.2005. Immune evasion by staphylococci. Nat Rev Microbiol3:948–958. doi: 10.1038/nrmicro1289. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
277. Cribier B, Prevost G, Couppie P, Finck-Barbancon V, Grosshans E, Piemont Y. 1992. Staphylococcus aureus leukocidin: a new virulence factor in cutaneous infections? An epidemiological and experimental study. Dermatology185:175–180. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
278. Prevost G, Couppie P, Prevost P, Gayet S, Petiau P, Cribier B, Monteil H, Piemont Y. 1995. Epidemiological data on Staphylococcus aureus strains producing synergohymenotropic toxins. J Med Microbiol42:237–245. doi: 10.1099/00222615-42-4-237. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
279. Vandenesch F, Naimi T, Enright MC, Lina G, Nimmo GR, Heffernan H, Liassine N, Bes M, Greenland T, Reverdy ME, Etienne J. 2003. Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus carrying Panton-Valentine leukocidin genes: worldwide emergence. Emerg Infect Dis9:978–984. doi: 10.3201/eid0908.030089. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
280. Diep BA, Sensabaugh GF, Somboonna N, Carleton HA, Perdreau-Remington F. 2004. Widespread skin and soft-tissue infections due to two methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains harboring the genes for Panton-Valentine leucocidin. J Clin Microbiol42:2080–2084. doi: 10.1128/JCM.42.5.2080-2084.2004. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
281. Lina G, Piemont Y, Godail-Gamot F, Bes M, Peter MO, Gauduchon V, Vandenesch F, Etienne J. 1999. Involvement of Panton-Valentine leukocidin-producing Staphylococcus aureus in primary skin infections and pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis29:1128–1132. doi: 10.1086/313461. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
282. Hsu LY, Koh TH, Kurup A, Low J, Chlebicki MP, Tan BH. 2005. High incidence of Panton-Valentine leukocidin-producing Staphylococcus aureus in a tertiary care public hospital in Singapore. Clin Infect Dis40:486–489. doi: 10.1086/427033. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
283. Nickerson EK, Wuthiekanun V, Wongsuvan G, Limmathurosakul D, Srisamang P, Mahavanakul W, Thaipadungpanit J, Shah KR, Arayawichanont A, Amornchai P, Thanwisai A, Day NP, Peacock SJ. 2009. Factors predicting and reducing mortality in patients with invasive Staphylococcus aureus disease in a developing country. PLoS One4:e6512. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0006512. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
284. Tong SY, Lilliebridge RA, Bishop EJ, Cheng AC, Holt DC, McDonald MI, Giffard PM, Currie BJ, Boutlis CS. 2010. Clinical correlates of Panton-Valentine leukocidin (PVL), PVL isoforms, and clonal complex in the Staphylococcus aureus population of Northern Australia. J Infect Dis202:760–769. doi: 10.1086/655396. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
285. Mesrati I, Saidani M, Ennigrou S, Zouari B, Ben Redjeb S. 2010. Clinical isolates of Pantone-Valentine leucocidin- and gamma-haemolysin-producing Staphylococcus aureus: prevalence and association with clinical infections. J Hosp Infect75:265–268. doi: 10.1016/j.jhin.2010.03.015. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
286. Shallcross LJ, Fragaszy E, Johnson AM, Hayward AC. 2013. The role of the Panton-Valentine leucocidin toxin in staphylococcal disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis13:43–54. doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(12)70238-4. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
287. Hamilton SM, Bryant AE, Carroll KC, Lockary V, Ma Y, McIndoo E, Miller LG, Perdreau-Remington F, Pullman J, Risi GF, Salmi DB, Stevens DL. 2007. In vitro production of Panton-Valentine leukocidin among strains of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus causing diverse infections. Clin Infect Dis45:1550–1558. doi: 10.1086/523581. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
288. Boakes E, Kearns AM, Badiou C, Lina G, Hill RL, Ellington MJ. 2012. Do differences in Panton-Valentine leukocidin production among international methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus clones affect disease presentation and severity?J Clin Microbiol50:1773–1776. doi: 10.1128/JCM.06421-11. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
289. Voyich JM, Otto M, Mathema B, Braughton KR, Whitney AR, Welty D, Long RD, Dorward DW, Gardner DJ, Lina G, Kreiswirth BN, DeLeo FR. 2006. Is Panton-Valentine leukocidin the major virulence determinant in community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus disease?J Infect Dis194:1761–1770. doi: 10.1086/509506. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
290. Hongo I, Baba T, Oishi K, Morimoto Y, Ito T, Hiramatsu K. 2009. Phenol-soluble modulin alpha 3 enhances the human neutrophil lysis mediated by Panton-Valentine leukocidin. J Infect Dis200:715–723. doi: 10.1086/605332. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
291. Loffler B, Hussain M, Grundmeier M, Bruck M, Holzinger D, Varga G, Roth J, Kahl BC, Proctor RA, Peters G. 2010. Staphylococcus aureus Panton-Valentine leukocidin is a very potent cytotoxic factor for human neutrophils. PLoS Pathog6:e1000715. doi: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1000715. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
292. Chi CY, Lin CC, Liao IC, Yao YC, Shen FC, Liu CC, Lin CF. 2014. Panton-Valentine leukocidin facilitates the escape of Staphylococcus aureus from human keratinocyte endosomes and induces apoptosis. J Infect Dis209:224–235. doi: 10.1093/infdis/jit445. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
293. Li M, Cheung GY, Hu J, Wang D, Joo HS, Deleo FR, Otto M. 2010. Comparative analysis of virulence and toxin expression of global community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains. J Infect Dis202:1866–1876. doi: 10.1086/657419. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
294. Berube BJ, Bubeck Wardenburg J. 2013. Staphylococcus aureus alpha-toxin: nearly a century of intrigue. Toxins5:1140–1166. doi: 10.3390/toxins5061140. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
295. Inoshima N, Wang Y, Bubeck Wardenburg J. 2012. Genetic requirement for ADAM10 in severe Staphylococcus aureus skin infection. J Investig Dermatol132:1513–1516. doi: 10.1038/jid.2011.462. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
296. Tong SY, Sharma-Kuinkel BK, Thaden JT, Whitney AR, Yang SJ, Mishra NN, Rude T, Lilliebridge RA, Selim MA, Ahn SH, Holt DC, Giffard PM, Bayer AS, Deleo FR, Fowler VG Jr. 2013. Virulence of endemic nonpigmented northern Australian Staphylococcus aureus clone (clonal complex 75, S. argenteus) is not augmented by staphyloxanthin. J Infect Dis208:520–527. doi: 10.1093/infdis/jit173. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
297. Chua KY, Seemann T, Harrison PF, Monagle S, Korman TM, Johnson PD, Coombs GW, Howden BO, Davies JK, Howden BP, Stinear TP. 2011. The dominant Australian community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus clone ST93-IV [2B] is highly virulent and genetically distinct. PLoS One6:e25887. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0025887. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
298. Chua KY, Monk IR, Lin YH, Seemann T, Tuck KL, Porter JL, Stepnell J, Coombs GW, Davies JK, Stinear TP, Howden BP. 2014. Hyperexpression of alpha-hemolysin explains enhanced virulence of sequence type 93 community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. BMC Microbiol14:31. doi: 10.1186/1471-2180-14-31. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
299. Soong G, Chun J, Parker D, Prince A. 2012. Staphylococcus aureus activation of caspase 1/calpain signaling mediates invasion through human keratinocytes. J Infect Dis205:1571–1579. doi: 10.1093/infdis/jis244. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
300. Mocca CP, Brady RA, Burns DL. 2014. Role of antibodies in protection elicited by active vaccination with genetically inactivated alpha hemolysin in a mouse model of Staphylococcus aureus skin and soft tissue infections. Clin Vaccine Immunol21:622–627. doi: 10.1128/CVI.00051-14. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
301. Joo HS, Cheung GY, Otto M. 2011. Antimicrobial activity of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus is caused by phenol-soluble modulin derivatives. J Biol Chem286:8933–8940. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M111.221382. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
302. Tsompanidou E, Denham EL, Becher D, de Jong A, Buist G, van Oosten M, Manson WL, Back JW, van Dijl JM, Dreisbach A. 2013. Distinct roles of phenol-soluble modulins in spreading of Staphylococcus aureus on wet surfaces. Appl Environ Microbiol79:886–895. doi: 10.1128/AEM.03157-12. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
303. Wang R, Braughton KR, Kretschmer D, Bach TH, Queck SY, Li M, Kennedy AD, Dorward DW, Klebanoff SJ, Peschel A, Deleo FR, Otto M. 2007. Identification of novel cytolytic peptides as key virulence determinants for community-associated MRSA. Nat Med13:1510–1514. doi: 10.1038/nm1656. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
304. Kobayashi SD, Malachowa N, Whitney AR, Braughton KR, Gardner DJ, Long D, Bubeck Wardenburg J, Schneewind O, Otto M, Deleo FR. 2011. Comparative analysis of USA300 virulence determinants in a rabbit model of skin and soft tissue infection. J Infect Dis204:937–941. doi: 10.1093/infdis/jir441. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
305. Berlon NR, Sharma Kuinkel BK, Joo HS, Park LP, Otto M, Fowler VG Jr. 2014. Increased in vitro production of phenol soluble modulins (PSMs) are associated with a soft tissue infection source in clinical isolates of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), abstr B-1996Abstr 54th Intersci Conf Antimicrob Agents Chemother, Washington, DC. [Google Scholar]
306. Diep BA, Stone GG, Basuino L, Graber CJ, Miller A, des Etages SA, Jones A, Palazzolo-Ballance AM, Perdreau-Remington F, Sensabaugh GF, DeLeo FR, Chambers HF. 2008. The arginine catabolic mobile element and staphylococcal chromosomal cassette mec linkage: convergence of virulence and resistance in the USA300 clone of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J Infect Dis197:1523–1530. doi: 10.1086/587907. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
307. Diep BA, Gill SR, Chang RF, Phan TH, Chen JH, Davidson MG, Lin F, Lin J, Carleton HA, Mongodin EF, Sensabaugh GF, Perdreau-Remington F. 2006. Complete genome sequence of USA300, an epidemic clone of community-acquired meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Lancet367:731–739. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68231-7. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
308. Li M, Diep BA, Villaruz AE, Braughton KR, Jiang X, DeLeo FR, Chambers HF, Lu Y, Otto M. 2009. Evolution of virulence in epidemic community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A106:5883–5888. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0900743106. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
309. Planet PJ, LaRussa SJ, Dana A, Smith H, Xu A, Ryan C, Uhlemann AC, Boundy S, Goldberg J, Narechania A, Kulkarni R, Ratner AJ, Geoghegan JA, Kolokotronis SO, Prince A. 2013. Emergence of the epidemic methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strain USA300 coincides with horizontal transfer of the arginine catabolic mobile element and speG-mediated adaptations for survival on skin. mBio4(6):e00889-13. doi: 10.1128/mBio.00889-13. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
310. Cheung GY, Wang R, Khan BA, Sturdevant DE, Otto M. 2011. Role of the accessory gene regulator agr in community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus pathogenesis. Infect Immun79:1927–1935. doi: 10.1128/IAI.00046-11. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
311. Li M, Du X, Villaruz AE, Diep BA, Wang D, Song Y, Tian Y, Hu J, Yu F, Lu Y, Otto M. 2012. MRSA epidemic linked to a quickly spreading colonization and virulence determinant. Nat Med18:816–819. doi: 10.1038/nm.2692. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
312. Bangert S, Levy M, Hebert AA. 2012. Bacterial resistance and impetigo treatment trends: a review. Pediatr Dermatol29:243–248. doi: 10.1111/j.1525-1470.2011.01700.x. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
313. McDonald M, Dougall A, Holt D, Huygens F, Oppedisano F, Giffard PM, Inman-Bamber J, Stephens AJ, Towers R, Carapetis JR, Currie BJ. 2006. Use of a single-nucleotide polymorphism genotyping system to demonstrate the unique epidemiology of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in remote aboriginal communities. J Clin Microbiol44:3720–3727. doi: 10.1128/JCM.00836-06. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
314. Steer AC, Jenney AW, Kado J, Batzloff MR, La Vincente S, Waqatakirewa L, Mulholland EK, Carapetis JR. 2009. High burden of impetigo and scabies in a tropical country. PLoS Negl Trop Dis3:e467. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000467. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
315. Nagaraju U, Bhat G, Kuruvila M, Pai GS, Jayalakshmi, Babu RP. 2004. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in community-acquired pyoderma. Int J Dermatol43:412–414. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-4632.2004.02138.x. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
316. Bowen AC, Tong SY, Andrews RM, O'Meara IM, McDonald MI, Chatfield MD, Currie BJ, Carapetis JR. 2014. Short-course oral co-trimoxazole versus intramuscular benzathine benzylpenicillin for impetigo in a highly endemic region: an open-label, randomised, controlled, non-inferiority trial. Lancet384:2132–2140. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(14)60841-2. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
317. Liu C, Graber CJ, Karr M, Diep BA, Basuino L, Schwartz BS, Enright MC, O'Hanlon SJ, Thomas JC, Perdreau-Remington F, Gordon S, Gunthorpe H, Jacobs R, Jensen P, Leoung G, Rumack JS, Chambers HF. 2008. A population-based study of the incidence and molecular epidemiology of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus disease in San Francisco, 2004-2005. Clin Infect Dis46:1637–1646. doi: 10.1086/587893. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
318. Purcell K, Fergie J. 2005. Epidemic of community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections: a 14-year study at Driscoll Children's Hospital. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med159:980–985. doi: 10.1001/archpedi.159.10.980. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
319. Davis SL, Perri MB, Donabedian SM, Manierski C, Singh A, Vager D, Haque NZ, Speirs K, Muder RR, Robinson-Dunn B, Hayden MK, Zervos MJ. 2007. Epidemiology and outcomes of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection. J Clin Microbiol45:1705–1711. doi: 10.1128/JCM.02311-06. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
320. Chambers HF.2013. Cellulitis, by any other name. Clin Infect Dis56:1763–1764. doi: 10.1093/cid/cit126. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
321. Chaudhry IA, Shamsi FA, Elzaridi E, Al-Rashed W, Al-Amri A, Arat YO. 2008. Inpatient preseptal cellulitis: experience from a tertiary eye care centre. Br J Ophthalmol92:1337–1341. doi: 10.1136/bjo.2007.128975. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
322. McKinley SH, Yen MT, Miller AM, Yen KG. 2007. Microbiology of pediatric orbital cellulitis. Am J Ophthalmol144:497–501. doi: 10.1016/j.ajo.2007.04.049. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
323. Seltz LB, Smith J, Durairaj VD, Enzenauer R, Todd J. 2011. Microbiology and antibiotic management of orbital cellulitis. Pediatrics127:e566–e572. doi: 10.1542/peds.2010-2117. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
324. Miller LG, Perdreau-Remington F, Rieg G, Mehdi S, Perlroth J, Bayer AS, Tang AW, Phung TO, Spellberg B. 2005. Necrotizing fasciitis caused by community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Los Angeles. N Engl J Med352:1445–1453. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa042683. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
325. Lee YT, Lin JC, Wang NC, Peng MY, Chang FY. 2007. Necrotizing fasciitis in a medical center in northern Taiwan: emergence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in the community. J Microbiol Immunol Infect40:335–341. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
326. Chauhan S, Jain S, Varma S, Chauhan SS. 2004. Tropical pyomyositis (myositis tropicans): current perspective. Postgrad Med J80:267–270. doi: 10.1136/pgmj.2003.009274. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
327. Martinez-Aguilar G, Avalos-Mishaan A, Hulten K, Hammerman W, Mason EO Jr, Kaplan SL. 2004. Community-acquired, methicillin-resistant and methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus musculoskeletal infections in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J23:701–706. doi: 10.1097/01.inf.0000133044.79130.2a. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
328. Pannaraj PS, Hulten KG, Gonzalez BE, Mason EO Jr, Kaplan SL. 2006. Infective pyomyositis and myositis in children in the era of community-acquired, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection. Clin Infect Dis43:953–960. doi: 10.1086/507637. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
329. Al-Tawfiq JA, Sarosi GA, Cushing HE. 2000. Pyomyositis in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. South Med J93:330–334. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
330. Lewis SS, Moehring RW, Chen LF, Sexton DJ, Anderson DJ. 2013. Assessing the relative burden of hospital-acquired infections in a network of community hospitals. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol34:1229–1230. doi: 10.1086/673443. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
331. Sievert DM, Ricks P, Edwards JR, Schneider A, Patel J, Srinivasan A, Kallen A, Limbago B, Fridkin S, National Healthcare Safety Network Team, Participating NHSN Facilities . 2013. Antimicrobial-resistant pathogens associated with healthcare-associated infections: summary of data reported to the National Healthcare Safety Network at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2009-2010. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol34:1–14. doi: 10.1086/668770. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
332. Wilson SE, O'Riordan W, Hopkins A, Friedland HD, Barriere SL, Kitt MM, ATLAS Investigators. 2009. Telavancin versus vancomycin for the treatment of complicated skin and skin-structure infections associated with surgical procedures. Am J Surg197:791–796. doi: 10.1016/j.amjsurg.2008.05.012. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
333. Steingrimsson S, Gottfredsson M, Kristinsson KG, Gudbjartsson T. 2008. Deep sternal wound infections following open heart surgery in Iceland: a population-based study. Scand Cardiovasc J42:208–213. doi: 10.1080/14017430801919557. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
334. Nakamura T, Daimon T, Mouri N, Masuda H, Sawa Y. 2014. Staphylococcus aureus and repeat bacteremia in febrile patients as early signs of sternal wound infection after cardiac surgery. J Cardiothorac Surg9:80. doi: 10.1186/1749-8090-9-80. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
335. Russo PL, Bull A, Bennett N, Boardman C, Burrell S, Motley J, Friedman ND, Richards M. 2005. Infections after coronary artery bypass graft surgery in Victorian hospitals—VICNISS Hospital Acquired Infection Surveillance. Aust N Z J Public Health29:244–248. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-842X.2005.tb00762.x. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
336. San Juan R, Aguado JM, Lopez MJ, Lumbreras C, Enriquez F, Sanz F, Chaves F, Lopez-Medrano F, Lizasoain M, Rufilanchas JJ. 2005. Accuracy of blood culture for early diagnosis of mediastinitis in febrile patients after cardiac surgery. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis24:182–189. doi: 10.1007/s10096-005-1302-1. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
337. Sharma M, Berriel-Cass D, Baran J Jr. 2004. Sternal surgical-site infection following coronary artery bypass graft: prevalence, microbiology, and complications during a 42-month period. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol25:468–471. doi: 10.1086/502423. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
338. Fowler VG Jr, Kaye KS, Simel DL, Cabell CH, McClachlan D, Smith PK, Levin S, Sexton DJ, Reller LB, Corey GR, Oddone EZ. 2003. Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia after median sternotomy: clinical utility of blood culture results in the identification of postoperative mediastinitis. Circulation108:73–78. doi: 10.1161/01.CIR.0000079105.65762.DB. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
339. Oranje AP, Chosidow O, Sacchidanand S, Todd G, Singh K, Scangarella N, Shawar R, Twynholm M, TOC100224 Study Team . 2007. Topical retapamulin ointment, 1%, versus sodium fusidate ointment, 2%, for impetigo: a randomized, observer-blinded, noninferiority study. Dermatology215:331–340. doi: 10.1159/000107776. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
340. Koning S, van der Wouden JC, Chosidow O, Twynholm M, Singh KP, Scangarella N, Oranje AP. 2008. Efficacy and safety of retapamulin ointment as treatment of impetigo: randomized double-blind multicentre placebo-controlled trial. Br J Dermatol158:1077–1082. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2133.2008.08485.x. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
341. Tack KJ, Keyserling CH, McCarty J, Hedrick JA. 1997. Study of use of cefdinir versus cephalexin for treatment of skin infections in pediatric patients. The Cefdinir Pediatric Skin Infection Study Group. Antimicrob Agents Chemother41:739–742. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
342. Bucko AD, Hunt BJ, Kidd SL, Hom R. 2002. Randomized, double-blind, multicenter comparison of oral cefditoren 200 or 400 mg BID with either cefuroxime 250 mg BID or cefadroxil 500 mg BID for the treatment of uncomplicated skin and skin-structure infections. Clin Ther24:1134–1147. doi: 10.1016/S0149-2918(02)80024-8. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
343. Giordano PA, Elston D, Akinlade BK, Weber K, Notario GF, Busman TA, Cifaldi M, Nilius AM. 2006. Cefdinir vs. cephalexin for mild to moderate uncomplicated skin and skin structure infections in adolescents and adults. Curr Med Res Opin22:2419–2428. doi: 10.1185/030079906X148355. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
344. Rajendran PM, Young D, Maurer T, Chambers H, Perdreau-Remington F, Ro P, Harris H. 2007. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of cephalexin for treatment of uncomplicated skin abscesses in a population at risk for community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection. Antimicrob Agents Chemother51:4044–4048. doi: 10.1128/AAC.00377-07. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
345. Duong M, Markwell S, Peter J, Barenkamp S. 2010. Randomized, controlled trial of antibiotics in the management of community-acquired skin abscesses in the pediatric patient. Ann Emerg Med55:401–407. doi: 10.1016/j.annemergmed.2009.03.014. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
346. Schmitz GR, Bruner D, Pitotti R, Olderog C, Livengood T, Williams J, Huebner K, Lightfoot J, Ritz B, Bates C, Schmitz M, Mete M, Deye G. 2010. Randomized controlled trial of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole for uncomplicated skin abscesses in patients at risk for community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection. Ann Emerg Med56:283–287. doi: 10.1016/j.annemergmed.2010.03.002. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
347. Pallin DJ, Binder WD, Allen MB, Lederman M, Parmar S, Filbin MR, Hooper DC, Camargo CA Jr. 2013. Clinical trial: comparative effectiveness of cephalexin plus trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole versus cephalexin alone for treatment of uncomplicated cellulitis: a randomized controlled trial. Clin Infect Dis56:1754–1762. doi: 10.1093/cid/cit122. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
348. Stevens DL, Smith LG, Bruss JB, McConnell-Martin MA, Duvall SE, Todd WM, Hafkin B. 2000. Randomized comparison of linezolid (PNU-100766) versus oxacillin-dicloxacillin for treatment of complicated skin and soft tissue infections. Antimicrob Agents Chemother44:3408–3413. doi: 10.1128/AAC.44.12.3408-3413.2000. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
349. Arbeit RD, Maki D, Tally FP, Campanaro E, Eisenstein BI. 2004. The safety and efficacy of daptomycin for the treatment of complicated skin and skin-structure infections. Clin Infect Dis38:1673–1681. doi: 10.1086/420818. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
350. Weigelt J, Itani K, Stevens D, Lau W, Dryden M, Knirsch C. 2005. Linezolid versus vancomycin in treatment of complicated skin and soft tissue infections. Antimicrob Agents Chemother49:2260–2266. doi: 10.1128/AAC.49.6.2260-2266.2005. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
351. Ellis-Grosse EJ, Babinchak T, Dartois N, Rose G, Loh E, Tigecycline 300 cSSSI Study Group, Tigecycline 305 cSSSI Study Group . 2005. The efficacy and safety of tigecycline in the treatment of skin and skin-structure infections: results of 2 double-blind phase 3 comparison studies with vancomycin-aztreonam. Clin Infect Dis41(Suppl 5):S341–S353. doi: 10.1086/431675. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
352. Breedt J, Teras J, Gardovskis J, Maritz FJ, Vaasna T, Ross DP, Gioud-Paquet M, Dartois N, Ellis-Grosse EJ, Loh E, Tigecycline 305 cSSSI Study Group . 2005. Safety and efficacy of tigecycline in treatment of skin and skin structure infections: results of a double-blind phase 3 comparison study with vancomycin-aztreonam. Antimicrob Agents Chemother49:4658–4666. doi: 10.1128/AAC.49.11.4658-4666.2005. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
353. Sacchidanand S, Penn RL, Embil JM, Campos ME, Curcio D, Ellis-Grosse E, Loh E, Rose G. 2005. Efficacy and safety of tigecycline monotherapy compared with vancomycin plus aztreonam in patients with complicated skin and skin structure infections: results from a phase 3, randomized, double-blind trial. Int J Infect Dis9:251–261. doi: 10.1016/j.ijid.2005.05.003. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
354. Jauregui LE, Babazadeh S, Seltzer E, Goldberg L, Krievins D, Frederick M, Krause D, Satilovs I, Endzinas Z, Breaux J, O'Riordan W. 2005. Randomized, double-blind comparison of once-weekly dalbavancin versus twice-daily linezolid therapy for the treatment of complicated skin and skin structure infections. Clin Infect Dis41:1407–1415. doi: 10.1086/497271. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
355. Noel GJ, Strauss RS, Amsler K, Heep M, Pypstra R, Solomkin JS. 2008. Results of a double-blind, randomized trial of ceftobiprole treatment of complicated skin and skin structure infections caused by Gram-positive bacteria. Antimicrob Agents Chemother52:37–44. doi: 10.1128/AAC.00551-07. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
356. Stryjewski ME, Graham DR, Wilson SE, O'Riordan W, Young D, Lentnek A, Ross DP, Fowler VG, Hopkins A, Friedland HD, Barriere SL, Kitt MM, Corey GR. 2008. Telavancin versus vancomycin for the treatment of complicated skin and skin-structure infections caused by gram-positive organisms. Clin Infect Dis46:1683–1693. doi: 10.1086/587896. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
357. Krievins D, Brandt R, Hawser S, Hadvary P, Islam K. 2009. Multicenter, randomized study of the efficacy and safety of intravenous iclaprim in complicated skin and skin structure infections. Antimicrob Agents Chemother53:2834–2840. doi: 10.1128/AAC.01383-08. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
358. Craft JC, Moriarty SR, Clark K, Scott D, Degenhardt TP, Still JG, Corey GR, Das A, Fernandes P. 2011. A randomized, double-blind phase 2 study comparing the efficacy and safety of an oral fusidic acid loading-dose regimen to oral linezolid for the treatment of acute bacterial skin and skin structure infections. Clin Infect Dis52(Suppl 7):S520–S526. doi: 10.1093/cid/cir167. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
359. Friedland HD, O'Neal T, Biek D, Eckburg PB, Rank DR, Llorens L, Smith A, Witherell GW, Laudano JB, Thye D. 2012. CANVAS 1 and 2: analysis of clinical response at day 3 in two phase 3 trials of ceftaroline fosamil versus vancomycin plus aztreonam in treatment of acute bacterial skin and skin structure infections. Antimicrob Agents Chemother56:2231–2236. doi: 10.1128/AAC.05738-11. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
360. Prokocimer P, De Anda C, Fang E, Mehra P, Das A. 2013. Tedizolid phosphate vs linezolid for treatment of acute bacterial skin and skin structure infections: the ESTABLISH-1 randomized trial. JAMA309:559–569. doi: 10.1001/jama.2013.241. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
361. Noel GJ, Bush K, Bagchi P, Ianus J, Strauss RS. 2008. A randomized, double-blind trial comparing ceftobiprole medocaril with vancomycin plus ceftazidime for the treatment of patients with complicated skin and skin-structure infections. Clin Infect Dis46:647–655. doi: 10.1086/526527. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
362. Koning S, van der Sande R, Verhagen AP, van Suijlekom-Smit LW, Morris AD, Butler CC, Berger M, van der Wouden JC. 2012. Interventions for impetigo. Cochrane Database Syst Rev1:CD003261. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD003261.pub3. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
363. Carapetis JR, Steer AC, Mulholland EK, Weber M. 2005. The global burden of group A streptococcal diseases. Lancet Infect Dis5:685–694. doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(05)70267-X. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
364. Lee MC, Rios AM, Aten MF, Mejias A, Cavuoti D, McCracken GH Jr, Hardy RD. 2004. Management and outcome of children with skin and soft tissue abscesses caused by community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Pediatr Infect Dis J23:123–127. doi: 10.1097/01.inf.0000109288.06912.21. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
365. Paydar KZ, Hansen SL, Charlebois ED, Harris HW, Young DM. 2006. Inappropriate antibiotic use in soft tissue infections. Arch Surg141:850–854; discussion 855–856. doi: 10.1001/archsurg.141.9.850. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
366. Ruhe JJ, Smith N, Bradsher RW, Menon A. 2007. Community-onset methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus skin and soft-tissue infections: impact of antimicrobial therapy on outcome. Clin Infect Dis44:777–784. doi: 10.1086/511872. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
367. Spellberg B, Boucher H, Bradley J, Das A, Talbot G. 2011. To treat or not to treat: adjunctive antibiotics for uncomplicated abscesses. Ann Emerg Med57:183–185. doi: 10.1016/j.annemergmed.2010.04.027. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
368. Broder JS.2011. Randomized controlled trials, antibiotics, and cutaneous abscesses: has lack of statistical power prevented recognition of an effective therapy?Ann Emerg Med57:185. doi: 10.1016/j.annemergmed.2010.08.036 (Reply, 57: 185–186, doi: 10.1016/j.annemergmed.2010.08.037. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
369. Miller LG, Daum RS, Creech CB, Young D, Downing MD, Eells SJ, Pettibone S, Hoagland RJ, Chambers HF, DMID 07-0051 Team. 2015. Clindamycin versus trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole for uncomplicated skin infections. N Engl J Med372:1093–1103. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1403789. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
370. Stevens DL, Bisno AL, Chambers HF, Dellinger EP, Goldstein EJ, Gorbach SL, Hirschmann JV, Kaplan SL, Montoya JG, Wade JC. 2014. Practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of skin and soft tissue infections: 2014 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis59:e10–e52. doi: 10.1093/cid/ciu296. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
371. Bowen AC, Lilliebridge RA, Tong SY, Baird RW, Ward P, McDonald MI, Currie BJ, Carapetis JR. 2012. Is Streptococcus pyogenes resistant or susceptible to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole?J Clin Microbiol50:4067–4072. doi: 10.1128/JCM.02195-12. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
372. Boucher HW, Wilcox M, Talbot GH, Puttagunta S, Das AF, Dunne MW. 2014. Once-weekly dalbavancin versus daily conventional therapy for skin infection. N Engl J Med370:2169–2179. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1310480. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
373. Moran GJ, Fang E, Corey GR, Das AF, De Anda C, Prokocimer P. 2014. Tedizolid for 6 days versus linezolid for 10 days for acute bacterial skin and skin-structure infections (ESTABLISH-2): a randomised, double-blind, phase 3, non-inferiority trial. Lancet Infect Dis14:696–705. doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(14)70737-6. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
374. Corey GR, Kabler H, Mehra P, Gupta S, Overcash JS, Porwal A, Giordano P, Lucasti C, Perez A, Good S, Jiang H, Moeck G, O'Riordan W, SOLO I Investigators. 2014. Single-dose oritavancin in the treatment of acute bacterial skin infections. N Engl J Med370:2180–2190. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1310422. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
375. Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, FDA, US Department of Health and Human Services. 2013. Guidance for industry. Acute bacterial skin and skin structure infections: developing drugs for treatment. Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, FDA, US Department of Health and Human Services, Washington, DC: http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Drugs/.../Guidances/ucm071185.pdf. [Google Scholar]
376. Corey GR, Stryjewski ME. 2011. New rules for clinical trials of patients with acute bacterial skin and skin-structure infections: do not let the perfect be the enemy of the good. Clin Infect Dis52(Suppl 7):S469–S476. doi: 10.1093/cid/cir162. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
377. Zimbelman J, Palmer A, Todd J. 1999. Improved outcome of clindamycin compared with beta-lactam antibiotic treatment for invasive Streptococcus pyogenes infection. Pediatr Infect Dis J18:1096–1100. doi: 10.1097/00006454-199912000-00014. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
378. Mulla ZD, Leaverton PE, Wiersma ST. 2003. Invasive group A streptococcal infections in Florida. South Med J96:968–973. doi: 10.1097/01.SMJ.0000051060.95210.9A. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
379. Carapetis JR, Jacoby P, Carville K, Ang SJ, Curtis N, Andrews R. 2014. Effectiveness of clindamycin and intravenous immunoglobulin, and risk of disease in contacts, in invasive group A streptococcal infections. Clin Infect Dis59:358–365. doi: 10.1093/cid/ciu304. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
380. Gillet Y, Dumitrescu O, Tristan A, Dauwalder O, Javouhey E, Floret D, Vandenesch F, Etienne J, Lina G. 2011. Pragmatic management of Panton-Valentine leukocidin-associated staphylococcal diseases. Int J Antimicrob Agents38:457–464. doi: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2011.05.003. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
381. Stevens DL, Wallace RJ, Hamilton SM, Bryant AE. 2006. Successful treatment of staphylococcal toxic shock syndrome with linezolid: a case report and in vitro evaluation of the production of toxic shock syndrome toxin type 1 in the presence of antibiotics. Clin Infect Dis42:729–730. doi: 10.1086/500265. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
382. Sheehy SH, Atkins BA, Bejon P, Byren I, Wyllie D, Athanasou NA, Berendt AR, McNally MA. 2010. The microbiology of chronic osteomyelitis: prevalence of resistance to common empirical anti-microbial regimens. J Infect60:338–343. doi: 10.1016/j.jinf.2010.03.006. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
383. Tice AD, Hoagland P, Shoultz DA. 2003. Outcomes of osteomyelitis among patients treated with outpatient parenteral antimicrobial therapy. Am J Med114:723–728. doi: 10.1016/S0002-9343(03)00231-6. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
384. Bhavan KP, Marschall J, Olsen MA, Fraser VJ, Wright NM, Warren DK. 2010. The epidemiology of hematogenous vertebral osteomyelitis: a cohort study in a tertiary care hospital. BMC Infect Dis10:158. doi: 10.1186/1471-2334-10-158. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
385. Krogsgaard MR, Wagn P, Bengtsson J. 1998. Epidemiology of acute vertebral osteomyelitis in Denmark: 137 cases in Denmark 1978-1982, compared to cases reported to the National Patient Register 1991-1993. Acta Orthop Scand69:513–517. doi: 10.3109/17453679808997789. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
386. McHenry M, Easly K, Locker G. 2002. Vertebral osteomyelitis: long-term outcome for 253 patients from 7 Cleveland-area hospitals. Clin Infect Dis34:1342–1350. doi: 10.1086/340102. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
387. Corrah TW, Enoch DA, Aliyu SH, Lever AM. 2011. Bacteraemia and subsequent vertebral osteomyelitis: a retrospective review of 125 patients. QJM104:201–207. doi: 10.1093/qjmed/hcq178. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
388. Beronius M, Bergman B, Andersson R. 2001. Vertebral osteomyelitis in Goteborg, Sweden: a retrospective study of patients during 1990-95. Scand J Infect Dis33:527–532. doi: 10.1080/00365540110026566. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
389. Carragee EJ.1997. Pyogenic vertebral osteomyelitis. J Bone Joint Surg Am79:874–880. doi: 10.1302/0301-620X.79B5.8078. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
390. Inoue S, Moriyama T, Horinouchi Y, Tachibana T, Okada F, Maruo K, Yoshiya S. 2013. Comparison of clinical features and outcomes of Staphylococcus aureus vertebral osteomyelitis caused by methicillin-resistant and methicillin-sensitive strains. SpringerPlus2:283. doi: 10.1186/2193-1801-2-283. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
391. Chelsom J, Solberg CO. 1998. Vertebral osteomyelitis at a Norwegian university hospital 1987-97: clinical features, laboratory findings and outcome. Scand J Infect Dis30:147–151. doi: 10.1080/003655498750003537. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
392. Torda AJ, Gottlieb T, Bradbury R. 1995. Pyogenic vertebral osteomyelitis: analysis of 20 cases and review. Clin Infect Dis20:320–328. doi: 10.1093/clinids/20.2.320. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
393. Clerc O, Prod'hom G, Greub G, Zanetti G, Senn L. 2011. Adult native septic arthritis: a review of 10 years of experience and lessons for empirical antibiotic therapy. J Antimicrob Chemother66:1168–1173. doi: 10.1093/jac/dkr047. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
394. Stoesser N, Pocock J, Moore CE, Soeng S, Hor P, Sar P, Limmathurotsakul D, Day N, Kumar V, Khan S, Sar V, Parry CM. 2013. The epidemiology of pediatric bone and joint infections in Cambodia, 2007-11. J Trop Pediatr59:36–42. doi: 10.1093/tropej/fms044. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
395. Howard-Jones AR, Isaacs D, Gibbons PJ. 2013. Twelve-month outcome following septic arthritis in children. J Pediatr Orthop B22:486–490. doi: 10.1097/BPB.0b013e32836027ca. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
396. Okano T, Enokida M, Otsuki R, Hagino H, Teshima R. 2011. Recent trends in adult-onset septic arthritis of the knee and hip: retrospective analysis of patients treated during the past 50 years. J Infect Chemother17:666–670. doi: 10.1007/s10156-011-0244-z. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
397. Al Saadi MM, Al Zamil FA, Bokhary NA, Al Shamsan LA, Al Alola SA, Al Eissa YS. 2009. Acute septic arthritis in children. Pediatr Int51:377–380. doi: 10.1111/j.1442-200X.2008.02791.x. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
398. Eder L, Zisman D, Rozenbaum M, Rosner I. 2005. Clinical features and aetiology of septic arthritis in northern Israel. Rheumatology (Oxford)44:1559–1563. doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/kei092. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
399. Gupta M, Sturrock R, Field M. 2003. Prospective comparative study of patients with culture proven and high suspicion of adult onset septic arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis62:327–331. doi: 10.1136/ard.62.4.327. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
400. Khan FY, Abu-Khattab M, Baagar K, Mohamed SF, Elgendy I, Anand D, Malallah H, Sanjay D. 2013. Characteristics of patients with definite septic arthritis at Hamad General Hospital, Qatar: a hospital-based study from 2006 to 2011. Clin Rheumatol32:969–973. doi: 10.1007/s10067-013-2211-9. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
401. Gupta MN, Sturrock RD, Field M. 2001. A prospective 2-year study of 75 patients with adult-onset septic arthritis. Rheumatology (Oxford)40:24–30. doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/40.1.24. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
402. Peel TN, Cheng AC, Choong PF, Buising KL. 2012. Early onset prosthetic hip and knee joint infection: treatment and outcomes in Victoria, Australia. J Hosp Infect82:248–253. doi: 10.1016/j.jhin.2012.09.005. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
403. Rodriguez D, Pigrau C, Euba G, Cobo J, Garcia-Lechuz J, Palomino J, Riera M, Del Toro MD, Granados A, Ariza X. 2010. Acute haematogenous prosthetic joint infection: prospective evaluation of medical and surgical management. Clin Microbiol Infect16:1789–1795. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2010.03157.x. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
404. Westberg M, Grogaard B, Snorrason F. 2012. Early prosthetic joint infections treated with debridement and implant retention: 38 primary hip arthroplasties prospectively recorded and followed for median 4 years. Acta Orthop83:227–232. doi: 10.3109/17453674.2012.678801. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
405. Bejon P, Berendt A, Atkins BL, Green N, Parry H, Masters S, McLardy-Smith P, Gundle R, Byren I. 2010. Two-stage revision for prosthetic joint infection: predictors of outcome and the role of reimplantation microbiology. J Antimicrob Chemother65:569–575. doi: 10.1093/jac/dkp469. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
406. Byren I, Bejon P, Atkins BL, Angus B, Masters S, McLardy-Smith P, Gundle R, Berendt A. 2009. One hundred and twelve infected arthroplasties treated with ‘DAIR' (debridement, antibiotics and implant retention): antibiotic duration and outcome. J Antimicrob Chemother63:1264–1271. doi: 10.1093/jac/dkp107. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
407. Waldvogel FA, Medoff G, Swartz MN. 1970. Osteomyelitis: a review of clinical features, therapeutic considerations and unusual aspects. N Engl J Med282:198–206. doi: 10.1056/NEJM197001222820406. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
408. Espersen F, Frimodt-Moller N, Skinhoj P, Bentzon MW. 1991. Changing pattern of bone and joint infections due to Staphylococcus aureus: study of cases of bacteremia in Denmark, 1959-1988. Rev Infect Dis13:945–948. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
409. Kehrer M, Pedersen C, Jensen TG, Lassen AT. 2014. Increasing incidence of pyogenic spondylodiscitis: a 14-year population-based study. J Infect68:313–320. doi: 10.1016/j.jinf.2013.11.011. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
410. Hutchinson C, Hanger C, Wilkinson T, Sainsbury R, Pithie A. 2009. Spontaneous spinal infections in older people. Intern Med J39:845–848. doi: 10.1111/j.1445-5994.2009.02052.x. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
411. Akiyama T, Chikuda H, Yasunaga H, Horiguchi H, Fushimi K, Saita K. 2013. Incidence and risk factors for mortality of vertebral osteomyelitis: a retrospective analysis using the Japanese diagnosis procedure combination database. BMJ Open3:e002412. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2012-002412. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
412. Mylona E, Samarkos M, Kakalou E, Fanourgiakis P, Skoutelis A. 2009. Pyogenic vertebral osteomyelitis: a systematic review of clinical characteristics. Semin Arthritis Rheum39:10–17. doi: 10.1016/j.semarthrit.2008.03.002. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
413. Ziu M, Dengler B, Cordell D, Bartanusz V. 2014. Diagnosis and management of primary pyogenic spinal infections in intravenous recreational drug users. Neurosurg Focus37:E3. doi: 10.3171/2014.6.FOCUS14148. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
414. Jensen AG, Espersen F, Skinhoj P, Frimodt-Moller N. 1998. Bacteremic Staphylococcus aureus spondylitis. Arch Intern Med158:509–517. doi: 10.1001/archinte.158.5.509. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
415. Lew DP, Waldvogel FA. 1997. Osteomyelitis. N Engl J Med336:999–1007. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
416. Cunningham R, Cockayne A, Humphreys H. 1996. Clinical and molecular aspects of the pathogenesis of Staphylococcus aureus bone and joint infections. J Med Microbiol44:157–164. doi: 10.1099/00222615-44-3-157. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
417. Shirtliff M, Mader J. 2002. Acute septic arthritis. Clin Microbiol Rev15:527–544. doi: 10.1128/CMR.15.4.527-544.2002. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
418. Darouiche RO, Landon GC, Patti JM, Nguyen LL, Fernau RC, McDevitt D, Greene C, Foster T, Klima M. 1997. Role of Staphylococcus aureus surface adhesins in orthopaedic device infections: are results model-dependent?J Med Microbiol46:75–79. doi: 10.1099/00222615-46-1-75. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
419. Switalski L, Patti J, Butcher W, Gristina A, Speziale P, Hook M. 1993. A collagen receptor on Staphylococcus aureus strains isolated from patients with septic arthritis mediates adhesion to cartilage. Mol Microbiol7:99–107. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.1993.tb01101.x. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
420. Fischer B, Vaudaux M, Magnin Y, Mestikawy R, Lew D. 1996. Novel animal model for studying the molecular mechanisms of bacterial adhesion to bone-implanted metallic devices: role of fibronectin in Staphylococcus aureus adhesion. J Orthop Res14:914–920. doi: 10.1002/jor.1100140611. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
421. Clauss M, Tafin UF, Bizzini A, Trampuz A, Ilchmann T. 2013. Biofilm formation by staphylococci on fresh, fresh-frozen and processed human and bovine bone grafts. Eur Cell Mater25:159–166. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
422. Shi S, Zhang X. 2012. Interaction of Staphylococcus aureus with osteoblasts. Exp Ther Med3:367–370. doi: 10.3892/etm.2011.423. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
423. Proctor RA, von Eiff C, Kahl BC, Becker K, McNamara P, Herrmann M, Peters G. 2006. Small colony variants: a pathogenic form of bacteria that facilitates persistent and recurrent infections. Nat Rev Microbiol4:295–305. doi: 10.1038/nrmicro1384. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
424. Kalinka J, Hachmeister M, Geraci J, Sordelli D, Hansen U, Niemann S, Oetermann S, Peters G, Loffler B, Tuchscherr L. 2014. Staphylococcus aureus isolates from chronic osteomyelitis are characterized by high host cell invasion and intracellular adaptation, but still induce inflammation. Int J Med Microbiol304:1038–1049. doi: 10.1016/j.ijmm.2014.07.013. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
425. Rolauffs B, Bernhardt TM, von Eiff C, Hart ML, Bettin D. 2002. Osteopetrosis, femoral fracture, and chronic osteomyelitis caused by Staphylococcus aureus small colony variants (SCV) treated by girdlestone resection—6-year follow-up. Arch Orthop Trauma Surg122:547–550. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
426. von Eiff C, Bettin D, Proctor RA, Rolauffs B, Lindner N, Winkelmann W, Peters G. 1997. Recovery of small colony variants of Staphylococcus aureus following gentamicin bead placement for osteomyelitis. Clin Infect Dis25:1250–1251. doi: 10.1086/516962. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
427. Sendi P, Rohrbach M, Graber P, Frei R, Ochsner PE, Zimmerli W. 2006. Staphylococcus aureus small colony variants in prosthetic joint infection. Clin Infect Dis43:961–967. doi: 10.1086/507633. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
428. Tande AJ, Osmon DR, Greenwood-Quaintance KE, Mabry TM, Hanssen AD, Patel R. 2014. Clinical characteristics and outcomes of prosthetic joint infection caused by small colony variant staphylococci. mBio5(5):e01910-14. doi: 10.1128/mBio.01910-14. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
429. Abele-Horn M, Schupfner B, Emmerling P, Waldner H, Goring H. 2000. Persistent wound infection after herniotomy associated with small-colony variants of Staphylococcus aureus. Infection28:53–54. doi: 10.1007/s150100050014. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
430. Bhattacharyya S, Roy S, Mukhopadhyay P, Rit K, Dey J, Ganguly U, Ray R. 2012. Small colony variants of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from a patient with infective endocarditis: a case report and review of the literature. Iran J Microbiol4:98–99. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
431. Spanu T, Romano L, D'Inzeo T, Masucci L, Albanese A, Papacci F, Marchese E, Sanguinetti M, Fadda G. 2005. Recurrent ventriculoperitoneal shunt infection caused by small-colony variants of Staphylococcus aureus. Clin Infect Dis41:e48–e52. doi: 10.1086/432577. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
432. Gitomer SA, Ramakrishnan VR, Malcolm KC, Kofonow JM, Ir D, Frank DN. 2015. Initial investigation of small colony variants of Staphylococcus aureus in chronic rhinosinusitis. Am J Rhinol Allergy29:29–34. doi: 10.2500/ajra.2015.29.4133. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
433. Tuchscherr L, Heitmann V, Hussain M, Viemann D, Roth J, von Eiff C, Peters G, Becker K, Loffler B. 2010. Staphylococcus aureus small-colony variants are adapted phenotypes for intracellular persistence. J Infect Dis202:1031–1040. doi: 10.1086/656047. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
434. von Eiff C, Becker K, Metze D, Lubritz G, Hockmann J, Schwarz T, Peters G. 2001. Intracellular persistence of Staphylococcus aureus small-colony variants within keratinocytes: a cause for antibiotic treatment failure in a patient with Darier's disease. Clin Infect Dis32:1643–1647. doi: 10.1086/320519. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
435. Baumert N, von Eiff C, Schaaff F, Peters G, Proctor RA, Sahl HG. 2002. Physiology and antibiotic susceptibility of Staphylococcus aureus small colony variants. Microb Drug Resist8:253–260. doi: 10.1089/10766290260469507. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
436. Garcia LG, Lemaire S, Kahl BC, Becker K, Proctor RA, Denis O, Tulkens PM, Van Bambeke F. 2013. Antibiotic activity against small-colony variants of Staphylococcus aureus: review of in vitro, animal and clinical data. J Antimicrob Chemother68:1455–1464. doi: 10.1093/jac/dkt072. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
437. Proctor RA, Peters G. 1998. Small colony variants in staphylococcal infections: diagnostic and therapeutic implications. Clin Infect Dis27:419–422. doi: 10.1086/514706. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
438. von Eiff C.2008. Staphylococcus aureus small colony variants: a challenge to microbiologists and clinicians. Int J Antimicrob Agents31:507–510. doi: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2007.10.026. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
439. Neut D, van der Mei HC, Bulstra SK, Busscher HJ. 2007. The role of small-colony variants in failure to diagnose and treat biofilm infections in orthopedics. Acta Orthop78:299–308. doi: 10.1080/17453670710013843. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
440. Rankine JJ, Barron DA, Robinson P, Millner PA, Dickson RA. 2004. Therapeutic impact of percutaneous spinal biopsy in spinal infection. Postgrad Med J80:607–609. doi: 10.1136/pgmj.2003.017863. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
441. Grados F, Lescure FX, Senneville E, Flipo RM, Schmit JL, Fardellone P. 2007. Suggestions for managing pyogenic (non-tuberculous) discitis in adults. Joint Bone Spine74:133–139. doi: 10.1016/j.jbspin.2006.11.002. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
442. de Lucas EM, Gonzalez Mandly A, Gutierrez A, Pellon R, Martin-Cuesta L, Izquierdo J, Sanchez E, Ruiz E, Quintana F. 2009. CT-guided fine-needle aspiration in vertebral osteomyelitis: true usefulness of a common practice. Clin Rheumatol28:315–320. doi: 10.1007/s10067-008-1051-5. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
443. Gras G, Buzele R, Parienti JJ, Debiais F, Dinh A, Dupon M, Roblot F, Mulleman D, Marcelli C, Michon J, Bernard L. 2014. Microbiological diagnosis of vertebral osteomyelitis: relevance of second percutaneous biopsy following initial negative biopsy and limited yield of post-biopsy blood cultures. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis33:371–375. doi: 10.1007/s10096-013-1965-y. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
444. Waldvogel FA, Medoff G, Swartz MN. 1970. Osteomyelitis: a review of clinical features, therapeutic considerations and unusual aspects. 3. Osteomyelitis associated with vascular insufficiency. N Engl J Med282:316–322. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
445. Peel TN, Dowsey MM, Buising KL, Liew D, Choong PF. 2013. Cost analysis of debridement and retention for management of prosthetic joint infection. Clin Microbiol Infect19:181–186. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2011.03758.x. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
446. Lalani T, Chu VH, Grussemeyer CA, Reed SD, Bolognesi MP, Friedman JY, Griffiths RI, Crosslin DR, Kanafani ZA, Kaye KS, Ralph Corey G, Fowler VG Jr. 2008. Clinical outcomes and costs among patients with Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia and orthopedic device infections. Scand J Infect Dis40:973–977. doi: 10.1080/00365540802245146. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
447. Yuan HC, Wu KG, Chen CJ, Tang RB, Hwang BT. 2006. Characteristics and outcome of septic arthritis in children. J Microbiol Immunol Infect39:342–347. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
448. Park KH, Chong YP, Kim SH, Lee SO, Choi SH, Lee MS, Jeong JY, Woo JH, Kim YS. 2013. Clinical characteristics and therapeutic outcomes of hematogenous vertebral osteomyelitis caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J Infect67:556–564. doi: 10.1016/j.jinf.2013.07.026. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
449. Roblot F, Besnier JM, Juhel L, Vidal C, Ragot S, Bastides F, Le Moal G, Godet C, Mulleman D, Azais I, Becq-Giraudon B, Choutet P. 2007. Optimal duration of antibiotic therapy in vertebral osteomyelitis. Semin Arthritis Rheum36:269–277. doi: 10.1016/j.semarthrit.2006.09.004. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
450. Friedman JA, Maher CO, Quast LM, McClelland RL, Ebersold MJ. 2002. Spontaneous disc space infections in adults. Surg Neurol57:81–86. doi: 10.1016/S0090-3019(01)00681-4. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
451. Zimmerli W.2010. Clinical practice. Vertebral osteomyelitis. N Engl J Med362:1022–1029. doi: 10.1056/NEJMcp0910753. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
452. Bernard L, Dinh A, Ghout I, Simo D, Zeller V, Issartel B, Le Moing V, Belmatoug N, Lesprit P, Bru JP, Therby A, Bouhour D, Denes E, Debard A, Chirouze C, Fevre K, Dupon M, Aegerter P, Mulleman D, Duration of Treatment for Spondylodiscitis Study Group . 2015. Antibiotic treatment for 6 weeks versus 12 weeks in patients with pyogenic vertebral osteomyelitis: an open-label, non-inferiority, randomised, controlled trial. Lancet385:875–882. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61233-2. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
453. Babouee Flury B, Elzi L, Kolbe M, Frei R, Weisser M, Scharen S, Widmer AF, Battegay M. 2014. Is switching to an oral antibiotic regimen safe after 2 weeks of intravenous treatment for primary bacterial vertebral osteomyelitis?BMC Infect Dis14:226. doi: 10.1186/1471-2334-14-226. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
454. Weston VC, Jones AC, Bradbury N, Fawthrop F, Doherty M. 1999. Clinical features and outcome of septic arthritis in a single UK health district 1982-1991. Ann Rheum Dis58:214–219. doi: 10.1136/ard.58.4.214. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
455. Kaandorp CJ, Dinant HJ, van de Laar MA, Moens HJ, Prins AP, Dijkmans BA. 1997. Incidence and sources of native and prosthetic joint infection: a community based prospective survey. Ann Rheum Dis56:470–475. doi: 10.1136/ard.56.8.470. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
456. Kaandorp C, Van Schaardenburg D, Krijnen P, Habbema J, Van de Laar M. 1995. Risk factors for septic arthritis in patients with joint disease. A prospective study. Arthritis Rheum38:1819–1825. doi: 10.1002/art.1780381215. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
457. Morgan D, Fisher D, Merianos A, Currie BJ. 1996. Septic arthritis: an 18 year clinical review of septic arthritis from tropical Australia. Epidemiol Infect117:423–428. doi: 10.1017/S0950268800059070. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
458. Garcia-Arias M, Balsa A, Mola EM. 2011. Septic arthritis. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol25:407–421. doi: 10.1016/j.berh.2011.02.001. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
459. Margaretten ME, Kohlwes J, Moore D, Bent S. 2007. Does this adult patient have septic arthritis?JAMA297:1478–1488. doi: 10.1001/jama.297.13.1478. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
460. Dubost J, Soubrier M, De Champs C, Ristori J, Bussiere J, Sauvezie B. 2002. No changes in the distribution of organisms responsible for septic arthritis over a 20 year period. Ann Rheum Dis61:267–269. doi: 10.1136/ard.61.3.267. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
461. Frazee BW, Fee C, Lambert L. 2009. How common is MRSA in adult septic arthritis?Ann Emerg Med54:695–700. doi: 10.1016/j.annemergmed.2009.06.511. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
462. Babcock H, Matava M, Fraser V. 2002. Postarthroscopy surgical site infections: review of the literature. Clin Infect Dis34:65–71. doi: 10.1086/324627. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
463. Shirtliff ME, Mader JT. 2002. Acute septic arthritis. Clin Microbiol Rev15:527–544. doi: 10.1128/CMR.15.4.527-544.2002. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
464. Gruber BF, Miller BS, Onnen J, Welling RD, Wojtys EM. 2008. Antibacterial properties of synovial fluid in the knee. J Knee Surg21:180–185. doi: 10.1055/s-0030-1247816. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
465. Gjertsson I, Jonsson IM, Peschel A, Tarkowski A, Lindholm C. 2012. Formylated peptides are important virulence factors in Staphylococcus aureus arthritis in mice. J Infect Dis205:305–311. doi: 10.1093/infdis/jir713. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
466. Colavite-Machado PM, Ishikawa LL, Franca TG, Zorzella-Pezavento SF, da Rosa LC, Chiuso-Minicucci F, da Cunha ML, Garlet GP, Sartori A. 2013. Differential arthritogenicity of Staphylococcus aureus strains isolated from biological samples. BMC Infect Dis13:400. doi: 10.1186/1471-2334-13-400. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
467. Verdrengh M, Tarkowski A. 1997. Role of neutrophils in experimental septicemia and septic arthritis induced by Staphylococcus aureus. Infect Immun65:2517–2521. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
468. Dastgheyb S, Parvizi J, Shapiro IM, Hickok NJ, Otto M. 2015. Effect of biofilms on recalcitrance of staphylococcal joint infection to antibiotic treatment. J Infect Dis211:641–650. doi: 10.1093/infdis/jiu514. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
469. Goldenberg D, Sexton D. 2014. Disseminated gonococcal infection. InHynes NA. (ed), UpToDate. UpToDate, Waltham, MA: Accessed 24 September 2014. [Google Scholar]
470. Mathews CJ, Weston VC, Jones A, Field M, Coakley G. 2010. Bacterial septic arthritis in adults. Lancet375:846–855. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61595-6. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
471. Goldenberg D.1998. Septic arthritis. Lancet351:197–202. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(97)09522-6. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
472. Norden C, Gillespie W, Nade S. 1994. Infectious arthritis. InNorden C. (ed), Infections in bones and joints. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Boston, MA. [Google Scholar]
473. Andole SN, Gupta S, Pelly M. 2011. Septic arthritis affecting pubic symphysis. BMJ Case Rep2011:bcr0420114089. doi: 10.1136/bcr.1104.2011.4089. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
474. Ross J, Hu L. 2003. Septic arthritis of the pubic symphysis—review of 100 cases. Medicine82:340–345. doi: 10.1097/01.md.0000091180.93122.1c. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
475. Kak V, Chandresekar PH, Narula AP. 2002. Bone and joint infections in injection drug users. Infect Dis Clin North Am16:681–695. doi: 10.1016/S0891-5520(02)00016-8. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
476. Ross J, Shamsuddin H. 2004. Sternoclavicular septic arthritis—review of 180 cases. Medicine83:139–148. doi: 10.1097/01.md.0000126761.83417.29. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
477. Mathews CJ, Coakley G. 2008. Septic arthritis: current diagnostic and therapeutic algorithm. Curr Opin Rheumatol20:457–462. doi: 10.1097/BOR.0b013e3283036975. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
478. Wise CM, Morris CR, Wasilauskas BL, Salzer WL. 1994. Gonococcal arthritis in an era of increasing penicillin resistance. Presentations and outcomes in 41 recent cases (1985-1991). Arch Intern Med154:2690–2695. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
479. O'Brien JP, Goldenberg DL, Rice PA. 1983. Disseminated gonococcal infection: a prospective analysis of 49 patients and a review of pathophysiology and immune mechanisms. Medicine (Baltimore)62:395–406. doi: 10.1097/00005792-198311000-00005. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
480. O'Connell PG, Milburn BM, Nashel DJ. 1985. Coexistent gout and septic arthritis: a report of two cases and literature review. Clin Exp Rheumatol3:265–267. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
481. Jarrett MP, Grayzel AI. 1980. Simultaneous gout, pseudogout, and septic arthritis. Arthritis Rheum23:128–129. doi: 10.1002/art.1780230127. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
482. Odio CM, Ramirez T, Arias G, Abdelnour A, Hidalgo I, Herrera ML, Bolanos W, Alpizar J, Alvarez P. 2003. Double blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study of dexamethasone therapy for hematogenous septic arthritis in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J22:883–888. doi: 10.1097/01.inf.0000091293.32187.7b. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
483. Lane J, Falahee M, Wojtys E, Hankin F, Kaufer H. 1990. Pyoarthrosis of the knee: treatment considerations. Clin Othop252:198–204. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
484. Matthews PC, Dean BJ, Medagoda K, Gundle R, Atkins BL, Berendt AR, Byren I. 2008. Native hip joint septic arthritis in 20 adults: delayed presentation beyond three weeks predicts need for excision arthroplasty. J Infect57:185–190. doi: 10.1016/j.jinf.2008.07.001. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
485. Coakley G, Mathews C, Field M, Jones A, Kingsley G, Walker D, Phillips M, Bradish C, McLachlan A, Mohammed R, Weston V, British Society for Rheumatology Standards, Guidelines and Audit Working Group . 2006. BSR & BHPR, BOA, RCGP and BSAC guidelines for management of the hot swollen joint in adults. Rheumatology (Oxford)45:1039–1041. doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/kel163a. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
486. Uckay I, Tovmirzaeva L, Garbino J, Rohner P, Tahintzi P, Suva D, Assal M, Hoffmeyer P, Bernard L, Lew D. 2013. Short parenteral antibiotic treatment for adult septic arthritis after successful drainage. Int J Infect Dis17:e199–e205. doi: 10.1016/j.ijid.2011.12.019. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
487. Lalani T, Boucher HW, Cosgrove SE, Fowler VG, Kanafani ZA, Vigliani GA, Campion M, Abrutyn E, Levine DP, Price CS, Rehm SJ, Corey GR, Karchmer AW, S. aureus Endocarditis and Bacteraemia Study Group . 2008. Outcomes with daptomycin versus standard therapy for osteoarticular infections associated with Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia. J Antimicrob Chemother61:177–182. doi: 10.1093/jac/dkm437. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
488. Goldenberg DL, Brandt KD, Cohen AS, Cathcart ES. 1975. Treatment of septic arthritis: comparison of needle aspiration and surgery as initial modes of joint drainage. Arthritis Rheum18:83–90. doi: 10.1002/art.1780180116. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
489. Ravindran V, Logan I, Bourke BE. 2009. Medical vs surgical treatment for the native joint in septic arthritis: a 6-year, single UK academic centre experience. Rheumatology (Oxford)48:1320–1322. doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/kep220. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
490. Sakiniene E, Bremell T, Tarkowski A. 1996. Addition of corticosteroids to antibiotic treatment ameliorates the course of experimental Staphylococcus aureus arthritis. Arthritis Rheum39:1596–1605. doi: 10.1002/art.1780390921. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
491. Harel L, Prais D, Bar-On E, Livni G, Hoffer V, Uziel Y, Amir J. 2011. Dexamethasone therapy for septic arthritis in children: results of a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled study. J Pediatr Orthop31:211–215. doi: 10.1097/BPO.0b013e3182092869. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
492. Arti H, Mousapour A, Alavi SM. 2014. The effect of intravenous dexamethasone in the treatment of septic arthritis. Pak J Med Sci30:955–957. doi: 10.12669/pjms.305.5217. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
493. Mitha A, Boutry N, Nectoux E, Petyt C, Lagree M, Happiette L, Martinot A, Hospital Network for Evaluating the Management of Infectious Diseases in Children, Dubos F.2015. Community-acquired bone and joint infections in children: a 1-year prospective epidemiological study. Arch Dis Child100:126–129. doi: 10.1136/archdischild-2013-305860. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
494. Grammatico-Guillon L, Maakaroun Vermesse Z, Baron S, Gettner S, Rusch E, Bernard L. 2013. Paediatric bone and joint infections are more common in boys and toddlers: a national epidemiology study. Acta Paediatr102:e120–e125. doi: 10.1111/apa.12115. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
495. Riise OR, Kirkhus E, Handeland KS, Flato B, Reiseter T, Cvancarova M, Nakstad B, Wathne KO. 2008. Childhood osteomyelitis—incidence and differentiation from other acute onset musculoskeletal features in a population-based study. BMC Pediatr8:45. doi: 10.1186/1471-2431-8-45. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
496. Street M, Puna R, Huang M, Crawford H. 20October2014. Pediatric acute hematogenous osteomyelitis. J Pediatr Orthop doi: 10.1097/BPO.0000000000000332. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
497. Arnold SR, Elias D, Buckingham SC, Thomas ED, Novais E, Arkader A, Howard C. 2006. Changing patterns of acute hematogenous osteomyelitis and septic arthritis: emergence of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J Pediatr Orthop26:703–708. doi: 10.1097/01.bpo.0000242431.91489.b4. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
498. Saavedra-Lozano J, Mejias A, Ahmad N, Peromingo E, Ardura MI, Guillen S, Syed A, Cavuoti D, Ramilo O. 2008. Changing trends in acute osteomyelitis in children: impact of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections. J Pediatr Orthop28:569–575. doi: 10.1097/BPO.0b013e31817bb816. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
499. Kaplan SL.2014. Recent lessons for the management of bone and joint infections. J Infect68(Suppl 1):S51–S56. doi: 10.1016/j.jinf.2013.09.014. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
500. Peltola H, Paakkonen M. 2014. Acute osteomyelitis in children. N Engl J Med370:352–360. doi: 10.1056/NEJMra1213956. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
501. Paakkonen M, Kallio MJ, Kallio PE, Peltola H. 2010. Sensitivity of erythrocyte sedimentation rate and C-reactive protein in childhood bone and joint infections. Clin Orthop Relat Res468:861–866. doi: 10.1007/s11999-009-0936-1. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
502. Ju KL, Zurakowski D, Kocher MS. 2011. Differentiating between methicillin-resistant and methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus osteomyelitis in children: an evidence-based clinical prediction algorithm. J Bone Joint Surg Am93:1693–1701. doi: 10.2106/JBJS.J.01154. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
503. Wade Shrader M, Nowlin M, Segal LS. 2013. Independent analysis of a clinical predictive algorithm to identify methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus osteomyelitis in children. J Pediatr Orthop33:759–762. doi: 10.1097/BPO.0b013e3182a11cf7. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
504. Hawkshead JJ III, Patel NB, Steele RW, Heinrich SD. 2009. Comparative severity of pediatric osteomyelitis attributable to methicillin-resistant versus methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus. J Pediatr Orthop29:85–90. doi: 10.1097/BPO.0b013e3181901c3a. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
505. Erdem G, Salazar R, Kimata C, Simasathien T, Len KA, Bergert L, Melish M. 2010. Staphylococcus aureus osteomyelitis in Hawaii. Clin Pediatr (Phila)49:477–484. doi: 10.1177/0009922809352805. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
506. Hollmig ST, Copley LA, Browne RH, Grande LM, Wilson PL. 2007. Deep venous thrombosis associated with osteomyelitis in children. J Bone Joint Surg Am89:1517–1523. doi: 10.2106/JBJS.F.01102. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
507. Gonzalez BE, Teruya J, Mahoney DH Jr, Hulten KG, Edwards R, Lamberth LB, Hammerman WA, Mason EO Jr, Kaplan SL. 2006. Venous thrombosis associated with staphylococcal osteomyelitis in children. Pediatrics117:1673–1679. doi: 10.1542/peds.2005-2009. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
508. Bouchoucha S, Benghachame F, Trifa M, Saied W, Douira W, Nessib MN, Ghachem MB. 2010. Deep venous thrombosis associated with acute hematogenous osteomyelitis in children. Orthop Traumatol Surg Res96:890–893. doi: 10.1016/j.otsr.2010.05.006. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
509. Crary SE, Buchanan GR, Drake CE, Journeycake JM. 2006. Venous thrombosis and thromboembolism in children with osteomyelitis. J Pediatr149:537–541. doi: 10.1016/j.jpeds.2006.06.067. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
510. Nourse C, Starr M, Munckhof W. 2007. Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus causes severe disseminated infection and deep venous thrombosis in children: literature review and recommendations for management. J Paediatr Child Health43:656–661. doi: 10.1111/j.1440-1754.2007.01153.x. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
511. Altobelli MG, Quinonez RA. 2012. When should DVT be suspected in children with osteomyelitis?Hosp Pediatr2:167–172. doi: 10.1542/hpeds.2012-0011. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
512. Mantadakis E, Plessa E, Vouloumanou EK, Michailidis L, Chatzimichael A, Falagas ME. 2012. Deep venous thrombosis in children with musculoskeletal infections: the clinical evidence. Int J Infect Dis16:e236–e243. doi: 10.1016/j.ijid.2011.12.012. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
513. Peltola H, Paakkonen M, Kallio P, Kallio MJ, Osteomyelitis-Septic Arthritis Study Group . 2010. Short- versus long-term antimicrobial treatment for acute hematogenous osteomyelitis of childhood: prospective, randomized trial on 131 culture-positive cases. Pediatr Infect Dis J29:1123–1128. doi: 10.1097/INF.0b013e3181f55a89. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
514. Jagodzinski NA, Kanwar R, Graham K, Bache CE. 2009. Prospective evaluation of a shortened regimen of treatment for acute osteomyelitis and septic arthritis in children. J Pediatr Orthop29:518–525. doi: 10.1097/BPO.0b013e3181ab472d. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
515. Ruebner R, Keren R, Coffin S, Chu J, Horn D, Zaoutis TE. 2006. Complications of central venous catheters used for the treatment of acute hematogenous osteomyelitis. Pediatrics117:1210–1215. doi: 10.1542/peds.2005-1465. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
516. Peltola H, Paakkonen M, Kallio P, Kallio MJ, OM-SA Study Group . 2012. Clindamycin vs. first-generation cephalosporins for acute osteoarticular infections of childhood—a prospective quasi-randomized controlled trial. Clin Microbiol Infect18:582–589. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2011.03643.x. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
517. Peltola H, Paakkonen M, Kallio P, Kallio MJ, Osteomyelitis-Septic Arthritis Study Group . 2009. Prospective, randomized trial of 10 days versus 30 days of antimicrobial treatment, including a short-term course of parenteral therapy, for childhood septic arthritis. Clin Infect Dis48:1201–1210. doi: 10.1086/597582. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
518. Howard-Jones AR, Isaacs D. 2013. Systematic review of duration and choice of systemic antibiotic therapy for acute haematogenous bacterial osteomyelitis in children. J Paediatr Child Health49:760–768. doi: 10.1111/jpc.12251. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
519. Tuason DA, Gheen T, Sun D, Huang R, Copley L. 2014. Clinical and laboratory parameters associated with multiple surgeries in children with acute hematogenous osteomyelitis. J Pediatr Orthop34:565–570. doi: 10.1097/BPO.0000000000000136. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
520. Darouiche RO.2004. Treatment of infections associated with surgical implants. N Engl J Med350:1422–1429. doi: 10.1056/NEJMra035415. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
521. Wymenga A, Van Horn J, Theeuwes A, Muytjens H, Sloof T. 1992. Perioperative factors associated with septic arthritis after arthroplasty. Acta Orthop Scand63:665–671. doi: 10.1080/17453679209169732. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
522. Widmer AF.2001. New developments in diagnosis and treatment of infection in orthopedic implants. Clin Infect Dis33(Suppl 2):S94–S106. doi: 10.1086/321863. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
523. Kurtz SM, Ong KL, Lau E, Bozic KJ, Berry D, Parvizi J. 2010. Prosthetic joint infection risk after TKA in the Medicare population. Clin Orthop Relat Res468:52–56. doi: 10.1007/s11999-009-1013-5. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
524. Ong KL, Kurtz SM, Lau E, Bozic KJ, Berry DJ, Parvizi J. 2009. Prosthetic joint infection risk after total hip arthroplasty in the Medicare population. J Arthroplasty24:105–109. doi: 10.1016/j.arth.2009.04.027. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
525. Kurtz SM, Lau E, Watson H, Schmier JK, Parvizi J. 2012. Economic burden of periprosthetic joint infection in the United States. J Arthroplasty27:61–65.e1. doi: 10.1016/j.arth.2012.02.022. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
526. Berbari EF, Hanssen AD, Duffy MC, Steckelberg JM, Ilstrup DM, Harmsen WS, Osmon DR. 1998. Risk factors for prosthetic joint infection: case-control study. Clin Infect Dis27:1247–1254. doi: 10.1086/514991. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
527. Peel TN, Dowsey MM, Daffy JR, Stanley PA, Choong PF, Buising KL. 2011. Risk factors for prosthetic hip and knee infections according to arthroplasty site. J Hosp Infect79:129–133. doi: 10.1016/j.jhin.2011.06.001. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
528. Berbari EF, Osmon DR, Lahr B, Eckel-Passow JE, Tsaras G, Hanssen AD, Mabry T, Steckelberg J, Thompson R. 2012. The Mayo prosthetic joint infection risk score: implication for surgical site infection reporting and risk stratification. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol33:774–781. doi: 10.1086/666641. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
529. Murdoch DR, Roberts SA, Fowler VG Jr, Shah MA, Taylor SL, Morris AJ, Corey GR. 2001. Infection of orthopedic prostheses after Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Clin Infect Dis32:647–649. doi: 10.1086/318704. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
530. Sendi P, Banderet F, Graber P, Zimmerli W. 2011. Periprosthetic joint infection following Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. J Infect63:17–22. doi: 10.1016/j.jinf.2011.05.005. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
531. Ceri H, Olson ME, Stremick C, Read RR, Morck D, Buret A. 1999. The Calgary Biofilm Device: new technology for rapid determination of antibiotic susceptibilities of bacterial biofilms. J Clin Microbiol37:1771–1776. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
532. Zimmerli W, Waldvogel FA, Vaudaux P, Nydegger UE. 1982. Pathogenesis of foreign body infection: description and characteristics of an animal model. J Infect Dis146:487–497. doi: 10.1093/infdis/146.4.487. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
533. Gomez J, Rodriguez M, Banos V, Martinex L, Claver MA, Ruiz J, Simarro E, Medina M, Clavel M. 2002. Infections in joint prostheses: epidemiology and clinical presentation. A prospective study 1992-1999. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin20:74–77. (In Spanish.) doi: 10.1016/S0213-005X(02)72745-6. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
534. Atkins B, Athanasou N, Deeks J. 1998. Prospective evaluation of criteria for microbiologic diagnosis of prosthetic-joint infection at revision arthroplasty. J Clin Microbiol36:2932–2939. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
535. Fink B, Makowiak C, Fuerst M, Berger I, Schafer P, Frommelt L. 2008. The value of synovial biopsy, joint aspiration and C-reactive protein in the diagnosis of late peri-prosthetic infection of total knee replacements. J Bone Joint Surg Br90:874–878. doi: 10.1302/0301-620X.90B7.20417. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
536. Virolainen P, Lahteenmaki H, Hiltunen A, Sipola E, Meurman O, Nelimarkka O. 2002. The reliability of diagnosis of infection during revision arthroplasties. Scand J Surg91:178–181. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
537. Stirling P, Faroug R, Amanat S, Ahmed A, Armstrong M, Sharma P, Qamruddin A. 2014. False-negative rate of gram-stain microscopy for diagnosis of septic arthritis: suggestions for improvement. Int J Microbiol2014:830857. doi: 10.1155/2014/830857. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
538. Atkins BL, Athanasou N, Deeks JJ, Crook DW, Simpson H, Peto TE, McLardy-Smith P, Berendt AR. 1998. Prospective evaluation of criteria for microbiological diagnosis of prosthetic-joint infection at revision arthroplasty. The OSIRIS Collaborative Study Group. J Clin Microbiol36:2932–2939. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
539. Trampuz A, Piper KE, Jacobson MJ, Hanssen AD, Unni KK, Osmon DR, Mandrekar JN, Cockerill FR, Steckelberg JM, Greenleaf JF, Patel R. 2007. Sonication of removed hip and knee prostheses for diagnosis of infection. N Engl J Med357:654–663. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa061588. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
540. Scorzolini L, Lichtner M, Iannetta M, Mengoni F, Russo G, Panni AS, Vasso M, Bove M, Villani C, Mastroianni CM, Vullo V. 2014. Sonication technique improves microbiological diagnosis in patients treated with antibiotics before surgery for prosthetic joint infections. New Microbiol37:321–328. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
541. Zhai Z, Li H, Qin A, Liu G, Liu X, Wu C, Li H, Zhu Z, Qu X, Dai K. 2014. Meta-analysis of sonication fluid samples from prosthetic components for diagnosis of infection after total joint arthroplasty. J Clin Microbiol52:1730–1736. doi: 10.1128/JCM.03138-13. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
542. Panousis K, Grigoris P, Butcher I, Rana B, Reilly JH, Hamblen DL. 2005. Poor predictive value of broad-range PCR for the detection of arthroplasty infection in 92 cases. Acta Orthop76:341–346. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
543. Osmon DR, Berbari EF, Berendt AR, Lew D, Zimmerli W, Steckelberg JM, Rao N, Hanssen A, Wilson WR, Infectious Diseases Society of America . 2013. Diagnosis and management of prosthetic joint infection: clinical practice guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis56:e1–e25. doi: 10.1093/cid/cis803. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
544. Peel TN, Buising KL, Choong PF. 2012. Diagnosis and management of prosthetic joint infection. Curr Opin Infect Dis25:670–676. doi: 10.1097/QCO.0b013e32835915db. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
545. Cobo J, Del Pozo JL. 2011. Prosthetic joint infection: diagnosis and management. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther9:787–802. doi: 10.1586/eri.11.95. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
546. Cataldo MA, Petrosillo N, Cipriani M, Cauda R, Tacconelli E. 2010. Prosthetic joint infection: recent developments in diagnosis and management. J Infect61:443–448. doi: 10.1016/j.jinf.2010.09.033. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
547. Matthews PC, Berendt AR, McNally MA, Byren I. 2009. Diagnosis and management of prosthetic joint infection. BMJ338:b1773. doi: 10.1136/bmj.b1773. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
548. Beswick AD, Elvers KT, Smith AJ, Gooberman-Hill R, Lovering A, Blom AW. 2012. What is the evidence base to guide surgical treatment of infected hip prostheses? Systematic review of longitudinal studies in unselected patients. BMC Med10:18. doi: 10.1186/1741-7015-10-18. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
549. Peel TN, Buising KL, Dowsey MM, Aboltins CA, Daffy JR, Stanley PA, Choong PF. 2013. Outcome of debridement and retention in prosthetic joint infections by methicillin-resistant staphylococci, with special reference to rifampin and fusidic acid combination therapy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother57:350–355. doi: 10.1128/AAC.02061-12. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
550. Senneville E, Joulie D, Legout L, Valette M, Dezeque H, Beltrand E, Rosele B, d'Escrivan T, Loiez C, Caillaux M, Yazdanpanah Y, Maynou C, Migaud H. 2011. Outcome and predictors of treatment failure in total hip/knee prosthetic joint infections due to Staphylococcus aureus. Clin Infect Dis53:334–340. doi: 10.1093/cid/cir402. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
551. Cobo J, Miguel LG, Euba G, Rodriguez D, Garcia-Lechuz JM, Riera M, Falgueras L, Palomino J, Benito N, del Toro MD, Pigrau C, Ariza J. 2011. Early prosthetic joint infection: outcomes with debridement and implant retention followed by antibiotic therapy. Clin Microbiol Infect17:1632–1637. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2010.03333.x. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
552. Romano CL, Manzi G, Logoluso N, Romano D. 2012. Value of debridement and irrigation for the treatment of peri-prosthetic infections. A systematic review. Hip Int22(Suppl 8):S19–S24. doi: 10.5301/HIP.2012.9566. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
553. Zimmerli W, Trampuz A, Ochsner PE. 2004. Prosthetic-joint infections. N Engl J Med351:1645–1654. doi: 10.1056/NEJMra040181. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
554. Tsukayama DT, Estrada R, Gustilo RB. 1996. Infection after total hip arthroplasty. A study of the treatment of one hundred and six infections. J Bone Joint Surg Am78:512–523. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
555. Zimmerli W, Widmer AF, Blatter M, Frei R, Ochsner PE. 1998. Role of rifampin for treatment of orthopedic implant-related staphylococcal infections: a randomized controlled trial. Foreign-Body Infection (FBI) Study Group. JAMA279:1537–1541. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
556. Gilbert DN, Kohlhepp SJ, Slama KA, Grunkemeier G, Lewis G, Dworkin RJ, Slaughter SE, Leggett JE. 2001. Phenotypic resistance of Staphylococcus aureus, selected Enterobacteriaceae, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa after single and multiple in vitro exposures to ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin, and trovafloxacin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother45:883–892. doi: 10.1128/AAC.45.3.883-892.2001. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
557. Eisen DP, Denholm JS. 2013. Recommendations for rifampicin therapy of staphylococcal infection in Infectious Diseases Society of America prosthetic joint infection guidelines are not supported by available literature. Clin Infect Dis57:159–160. doi: 10.1093/cid/cit183. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
558. Lora-Tamayo J, Murillo O, Iribarren JA, Soriano A, Sanchez-Somolinos M, Baraia-Etxaburu JM, Rico A, Palomino J, Rodriguez-Pardo D, Horcajada JP, Benito N, Bahamonde A, Granados A, del Toro MD, Cobo J, Riera M, Ramos A, Jover-Saenz A, Ariza J, REIPI Group for the Study of Prosthetic Infection . 2013. A large multicenter study of methicillin-susceptible and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus prosthetic joint infections managed with implant retention. Clin Infect Dis56:182–194. doi: 10.1093/cid/cis746. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
559. Segawa H, Tsukayama DT, Kyle RF, Becker DA, Gustilo RB. 1999. Infection after total knee arthroplasty. A retrospective study of the treatment of eighty-one infections. J Bone Joint Surg Am81:1434–1445. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
560. Rao N, Ziran B, Hall R, Santa E. 2004. Successful treatment of chronic bone and joint infections with oral linezolid. Clin Orthop Relat Res427:67–71. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
561. Lipsky B, Itani K, Norden C. 2004. Treating foot infections in diabetic patients: a randomized, multicenter, open-label trial of linezolid versus ampicillin-sulbactam/amoxicillin-clavulanate. Clin Infect Dis38:17–24. doi: 10.1086/380449. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
562. Byren I, Rege S, Campanaro E, Yankelev S, Anastasiou D, Kuropatkin G, Evans R. 2012. Randomized controlled trial of the safety and efficacy of daptomycin versus standard-of-care therapy for management of patients with osteomyelitis associated with prosthetic devices undergoing two-stage revision arthroplasty. Antimicrob Agents Chemother56:5626–5632. doi: 10.1128/AAC.00038-12. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
563. El Helou OC, Berbari EF, Lahr BD, Eckel-Passow JE, Razonable RR, Sia IG, Virk A, Walker RC, Steckelberg JM, Wilson WR, Hanssen AD, Osmon DR. 2010. Efficacy and safety of rifampin containing regimen for staphylococcal prosthetic joint infections treated with debridement and retention. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis29:961–967. doi: 10.1007/s10096-010-0952-9. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
564. Shuman EK, Urquhart A, Malani PN. 2012. Management and prevention of prosthetic joint infection. Infect Dis Clin North Am26:29–39. doi: 10.1016/j.idc.2011.09.011. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
565. Zimmerli W.2000. Prosthetic joint infection: diagnosis and treatment. Curr Infect Dis Rep2:377–379. doi: 10.1007/s11908-000-0059-z. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
566. Sutherland IW.2001. The biofilm matrix—an immobilized but dynamic microbial environment. Trends Microbiol9:222–227. doi: 10.1016/S0966-842X(01)02012-1. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
567. Arciola CR, Campoccia D, Speziale P, Montanaro L, Costerton JW. 2012. Biofilm formation in Staphylococcus implant infections. A review of molecular mechanisms and implications for biofilm-resistant materials. Biomaterials33:5967–5982. doi: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2012.05.031. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
568. Houston P, Rowe SE, Pozzi C, Waters EM, O'Gara JP. 2011. Essential role for the major autolysin in the fibronectin-binding protein-mediated Staphylococcus aureus biofilm phenotype. Infect Immun79:1153–1165. doi: 10.1128/IAI.00364-10. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
569. Stewart PS, Costerton JW. 2001. Antibiotic resistance of bacteria in biofilms. Lancet358:135–138. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(01)05321-1. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
570. Costerton JW, Stewart PS, Greenberg EP. 1999. Bacterial biofilms: a common cause of persistent infections. Science284:1318–1322. doi: 10.1126/science.284.5418.1318. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
571. Mehall JR, Saltzman DA, Jackson RJ, Smith SD. 2002. Fibrin sheath enhances central venous catheter infection. Crit Care Med30:908–912. doi: 10.1097/00003246-200204000-00033. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
572. Hoshal VL Jr, Ause RG, Hoskins PA. 1971. Fibrin sleeve formation on indwelling subclavian central venous catheters. Arch Surg102:353–358. doi: 10.1001/archsurg.1971.01350040115023. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
573. Vaudaux P, Pittet D, Haeberli A, Huggler E, Nydegger UE, Lew DP, Waldvogel FA. 1989. Host factors selectively increase staphylococcal adherence on inserted catheters: a role for fibronectin and fibrinogen or fibrin. J Infect Dis160:865–875. doi: 10.1093/infdis/160.5.865. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
574. Herrmann M, Vaudaux PE, Pittet D, Auckenthaler R, Lew PD, Schumacher-Perdreau F, Peters G, Waldvogel FA. 1988. Fibronectin, fibrinogen, and laminin act as mediators of adherence of clinical staphylococcal isolates to foreign material. J Infect Dis158:693–701. doi: 10.1093/infdis/158.4.693. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
575. Xiang DZ, Verbeken EK, Van Lommel AT, Stas M, De Wever I. 1998. Composition and formation of the sleeve enveloping a central venous catheter. J Vasc Surg28:260–271. doi: 10.1016/S0741-5214(98)70162-4. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
576. Padera RF.2006. Infection in ventricular assist devices: the role of biofilm. Cardiovasc Pathol15:264–270. doi: 10.1016/j.carpath.2006.04.008. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
577. Lowy FD.1998. Staphylococcus aureus infections. N Engl J Med339:520–532. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199808203390806. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
578. Lower SK, Lamlertthon S, Casillas-Ituarte NN, Lins RD, Yongsunthon R, Taylor ES, DiBartola AC, Edmonson C, McIntyre LM, Reller LB, Que YA, Ros R, Lower BH, Fowler VG Jr. 2011. Polymorphisms in fibronectin binding protein A of Staphylococcus aureus are associated with infection of cardiovascular devices. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A108:18372–18377. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1109071108. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
579. Fitzpatrick F, Humphreys H, O'Gara JP. 2005. The genetics of staphylococcal biofilm formation—will a greater understanding of pathogenesis lead to better management of device-related infection?Clin Microbiol Infect11:967–973. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2005.01274.x. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
580. Cramton SE, Gerke C, Schnell NF, Nichols WW, Gotz F. 1999. The intercellular adhesion (ica) locus is present in Staphylococcus aureus and is required for biofilm formation. Infect Immun67:5427–5433. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
581. Arciola CR, Baldassarri L, Montanaro L. 2001. Presence of icaA and icaD genes and slime production in a collection of staphylococcal strains from catheter-associated infections. J Clin Microbiol39:2151–2156. doi: 10.1128/JCM.39.6.2151-2156.2001. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
582. Pozzi C, Waters EM, Rudkin JK, Schaeffer CR, Lohan AJ, Tong P, Loftus BJ, Pier GB, Fey PD, Massey RC, O'Gara JP. 2012. Methicillin resistance alters the biofilm phenotype and attenuates virulence in Staphylococcus aureus device-associated infections. PLoS Pathog8:e1002626. doi: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1002626. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
583. Beenken KE, Dunman PM, McAleese F, Macapagal D, Murphy E, Projan SJ, Blevins JS, Smeltzer MS. 2004. Global gene expression in Staphylococcus aureus biofilms. J Bacteriol186:4665–4684. doi: 10.1128/JB.186.14.4665-4684.2004. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
584. Fitzpatrick F, Humphreys H, O'Gara JP. 2005. Evidence for icaADBC-independent biofilm development mechanism in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus clinical isolates. J Clin Microbiol43:1973–1976. doi: 10.1128/JCM.43.4.1973-1976.2005. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
585. Vergara-Irigaray M, Valle J, Merino N, Latasa C, Garcia B, Ruiz de Los Mozos I, Solano C, Toledo-Arana A, Penades JR, Lasa I. 2009. Relevant role of fibronectin-binding proteins in Staphylococcus aureus biofilm-associated foreign-body infections. Infect Immun77:3978–3991. doi: 10.1128/IAI.00616-09. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
586. O'Neill E, Pozzi C, Houston P, Humphreys H, Robinson DA, Loughman A, Foster TJ, O'Gara JP. 2008. A novel Staphylococcus aureus biofilm phenotype mediated by the fibronectin-binding proteins, FnBPA and FnBPB. J Bacteriol190:3835–3850. doi: 10.1128/JB.00167-08. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
587. O'Neill E, Pozzi C, Houston P, Smyth D, Humphreys H, Robinson DA, O'Gara JP. 2007. Association between methicillin susceptibility and biofilm regulation in Staphylococcus aureus isolates from device-related infections. J Clin Microbiol45:1379–1388. doi: 10.1128/JCM.02280-06. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
588. Vuong C, Saenz HL, Gotz F, Otto M. 2000. Impact of the agr quorum-sensing system on adherence to polystyrene in Staphylococcus aureus. J Infect Dis182:1688–1693. doi: 10.1086/317606. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
589. Mayville P, Ji G, Beavis R, Yang H, Goger M, Novick RP, Muir TW. 1999. Structure-activity analysis of synthetic autoinducing thiolactone peptides from Staphylococcus aureus responsible for virulence. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A96:1218–1223. doi: 10.1073/pnas.96.4.1218. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
590. Alter P, Waldhans S, Plachta E, Moosdorf R, Grimm W. 2005. Complications of implantable cardioverter defibrillator therapy in 440 consecutive patients. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol28:926–932. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-8159.2005.00195.x. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
591. Klug D, Balde M, Pavin D, Hidden-Lucet F, Clementy J, Sadoul N, Rey JL, Lande G, Lazarus A, Victor J, Barnay C, Grandbastien B, Kacet S, PEOPLE Study Group . 2007. Risk factors related to infections of implanted pacemakers and cardioverter-defibrillators: results of a large prospective study. Circulation116:1349–1355. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.678664. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
592. Lekkerkerker JC, van Nieuwkoop C, Trines SA, van der Bom JG, Bernards A, van de Velde ET, Bootsma M, Zeppenfeld K, Jukema JW, Borleffs JW, Schalij MJ, van Erven L. 2009. Risk factors and time delay associated with cardiac device infections: Leiden device registry. Heart95:715–720. doi: 10.1136/hrt.2008.151985. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
593. Pfeiffer D, Jung W, Fehske W, Korte T, Manz M, Moosdorf R, Luderitz B. 1994. Complications of pacemaker-defibrillator devices: diagnosis and management. Am Heart J127:1073–1080. doi: 10.1016/0002-8703(94)90090-6. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
594. Uslan DZ, Sohail MR, St Sauver JL, Friedman PA, Hayes DL, Stoner SM, Wilson WR, Steckelberg JM, Baddour LM. 2007. Permanent pacemaker and implantable cardioverter defibrillator infection: a population-based study. Arch Intern Med167:669–675. doi: 10.1001/archinte.167.7.669. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
595. Johansen JB, Jorgensen OD, Moller M, Arnsbo P, Mortensen PT, Nielsen JC. 2011. Infection after pacemaker implantation: infection rates and risk factors associated with infection in a population-based cohort study of 46299 consecutive patients. Eur Heart J32:991–998. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehq497. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
596. Nery PB, Fernandes R, Nair GM, Sumner GL, Ribas CS, Menon SM, Wang X, Krahn AD, Morillo CA, Connolly SJ, Healey JS. 2010. Device-related infection among patients with pacemakers and implantable defibrillators: incidence, risk factors, and consequences. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol21:786–790. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-8167.2009.01690.x. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
597. Greenspon AJ, Patel JD, Lau E, Ochoa JA, Frisch DR, Ho RT, Pavri BB, Kurtz SM. 2011. 16-year trends in the infection burden for pacemakers and implantable cardioverter-defibrillators in the United States 1993 to 2008. J Am Coll Cardiol58:1001–1006. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2011.04.033. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
598. Catanchin A, Murdock CJ, Athan E. 2007. Pacemaker infections: a 10-year experience. Heart Lung Circ16:434–439. doi: 10.1016/j.hlc.2007.02.097. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
599. Rodriguez DJ, Afzal A, Evonich R, Haines DE. 2012. The prevalence of methicillin resistant organisms among pacemaker and defibrillator implant recipients. Am J Cardiovasc Dis2:116–122. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
600. Cabell CH, Heidenreich PA, Chu VH, Moore CM, Stryjewski ME, Corey GR, Fowler VG Jr. 2004. Increasing rates of cardiac device infections among Medicare beneficiaries: 1990-1999. Am Heart J147:582–586. doi: 10.1016/j.ahj.2003.06.005. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
601. Chamis AL, Peterson GE, Cabell CH, Corey GR, Sorrentino RA, Greenfield RA, Ryan T, Reller LB, Fowler VG Jr. 2001. Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia in patients with permanent pacemakers or implantable cardioverter-defibrillators. Circulation104:1029–1033. doi: 10.1161/hc3401.095097. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
602. Uslan DZ, Dowsley TF, Sohail MR, Hayes DL, Friedman PA, Wilson WR, Steckelberg JM, Baddour LM. 2010. Cardiovascular implantable electronic device infection in patients with Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol33:407–413. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-8159.2009.02565.x. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
603. Chua JD, Wilkoff BL, Lee I, Juratli N, Longworth DL, Gordon SM. 2000. Diagnosis and management of infections involving implantable electrophysiologic cardiac devices. Ann Intern Med133:604–608. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-133-8-200010170-00011. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
604. Sohail MR, Uslan DZ, Khan AH, Friedman PA, Hayes DL, Wilson WR, Steckelberg JM, Stoner S, Baddour LM. 2007. Management and outcome of permanent pacemaker and implantable cardioverter-defibrillator infections. J Am Coll Cardiol49:1851–1859. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2007.01.072. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
605. Trappe HJ, Pfitzner P, Klein H, Wenzlaff P. 1995. Infections after cardioverter-defibrillator implantation: observations in 335 patients over 10 years. Br Heart J73:20–24. doi: 10.1136/hrt.73.1.20. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
606. Smit J, Korup E, Schonheyder HC. 2010. Infections associated with permanent pacemakers and implanted cardioverter-defibrillator devices. A 10-year regional study in Denmark. Scand J Infect Dis42:658–664. doi: 10.3109/00365548.2010.482943. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
607. Roig IL, Darouiche RO, Musher DM, Trautner BW. 2012. Device-related infective endocarditis, with special consideration of implanted intravascular and cardiac devices in a predominantly male population. Scand J Infect Dis44:753–760. doi: 10.3109/00365548.2012.678882. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
608. Tarakji KG, Chan EJ, Cantillon DJ, Doonan AL, Hu T, Schmitt S, Fraser TG, Kim A, Gordon SM, Wilkoff BL. 2010. Cardiac implantable electronic device infections: presentation, management, and patient outcomes. Heart Rhythm7:1043–1047. doi: 10.1016/j.hrthm.2010.05.016. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
609. Le KY, Sohail MR, Friedman PA, Uslan DZ, Cha SS, Hayes DL, Wilson WR, Steckelberg JM, Baddour LM, Mayo Cardiovascular Infections Study Group . 2012. Clinical features and outcomes of cardiovascular implantable electronic device infections due to staphylococcal species. Am J Cardiol110:1143–1149. doi: 10.1016/j.amjcard.2012.05.052. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
610. Obeid KM, Szpunar S, Khatib R. 2012. Long-term outcomes of cardiovascular implantable electronic devices in patients with Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol35:961–965. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-8159.2012.03438.x. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
611. Camus C, Leport C, Raffi F, Michelet C, Cartier F, Vilde JL. 1993. Sustained bacteremia in 26 patients with a permanent endocardial pacemaker: assessment of wire removal. Clin Infect Dis17:46–55. doi: 10.1093/clinids/17.1.46. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
612. Chu VH, Crosslin DR, Friedman JY, Reed SD, Cabell CH, Griffiths RI, Masselink LE, Kaye KS, Corey GR, Reller LB, Stryjewski ME, Schulman KA, Fowler VG Jr. 2005. Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia in patients with prosthetic devices: costs and outcomes. Am J Med118:1416.e19–1416.e24. doi: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2005.06.011. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
613. Viola GM, Awan LL, Ostrosky-Zeichner L, Chan W, Darouiche RO. 2012. Infections of cardiac implantable electronic devices: a retrospective multicenter observational study. Medicine91:123–130. doi: 10.1097/MD.0b013e31825592a7. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
614. Klug D, Wallet F, Lacroix D, Marquie C, Kouakam C, Kacet S, Courcol R. 2004. Local symptoms at the site of pacemaker implantation indicate latent systemic infection. Heart90:882–886. doi: 10.1136/hrt.2003.010595. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
615. Baddour LM, Epstein AE, Erickson CC, Knight BP, Levison ME, Lockhart PB, Masoudi FA, Okum EJ, Wilson WR, Beerman LB, Bolger AF, Estes NA III, Gewitz M, Newburger JW, Schron EB, Taubert KA, American Heart Association Rheumatic Fever, Endocarditis, and Kawasaki Disease Committee, Council on Cardiovascular Disease in Young, Council on Cardiovascular Surgery and Anesthesia, Council on Cardiovascular Nursing, Council on Clinical Cardiology, Interdisciplinary Council on Quality of Care, American Heart Association . 2010. Update on cardiovascular implantable electronic device infections and their management: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation121:458–477. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.192665. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
616. Dy Chua J, Abdul-Karim A, Mawhorter S, Procop GW, Tchou P, Niebauer M, Saliba W, Schweikert R, Wilkoff BL. 2005. The role of swab and tissue culture in the diagnosis of implantable cardiac device infection. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol28:1276–1281. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-8159.2005.00268.x. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
617. Klug D, Lacroix D, Savoye C, Goullard L, Grandmougin D, Hennequin JL, Kacet S, Lekieffre J. 1997. Systemic infection related to endocarditis on pacemaker leads: clinical presentation and management. Circulation95:2098–2107. doi: 10.1161/01.CIR.95.8.2098. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
618. de Cicco M, Panarello G, Chiaradia V, Fracasso A, Veronesi A, Testa V, Santini G, Tesio F. 1989. Source and route of microbial colonisation of parenteral nutrition catheters. Lancetii:1258–1261. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
619. Salzman MB, Isenberg HD, Shapiro JF, Lipsitz PJ, Rubin LG. 1993. A prospective study of the catheter hub as the portal of entry for microorganisms causing catheter-related sepsis in neonates. J Infect Dis167:487–490. doi: 10.1093/infdis/167.2.487. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
620. Linares J, Sitges-Serra A, Garau J, Perez JL, Martin R. 1985. Pathogenesis of catheter sepsis: a prospective study with quantitative and semiquantitative cultures of catheter hub and segments. J Clin Microbiol21:357–360. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
621. Chitnis AS, Edwards JR, Ricks PM, Sievert DM, Fridkin SK, Gould CV. 2012. Device-associated infection rates, device utilization, and antimicrobial resistance in long-term acute care hospitals reporting to the National Healthcare Safety Network, 2010. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol33:993–1000. doi: 10.1086/667745. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
622. Rosenthal VD, Bijie H, Maki DG, Mehta Y, Apisarnthanarak A, Medeiros EA, Leblebicioglu H, Fisher D, Alvarez-Moreno C, Khader IA, Del Rocio Gonzalez Martinez M, Cuellar LE, Navoa-Ng JA, Abouqal R, Guanche Garcell H, Mitrev Z, Pirez Garcia MC, Hamdi A, Duenas L, Cancel E, Gurskis V, Rasslan O, Ahmed A, Kanj SS, Ugalde OC, Mapp T, Raka L, Yuet Meng C, Thu LTA, Ghazal S, Gikas A, Narvaez LP, Mejia N, Hadjieva N, Gamar Elanbya MO, Guzman Siritt ME, Jayatilleke K, INICC Members. 2012. International Nosocomial Infection Control Consortium (INICC) report, data summary of 36 countries, for 2004-2009. Am J Infect Control40:396–407. doi: 10.1016/j.ajic.2011.05.020. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
623. Tao L, Hu B, Rosenthal VD, Gao X, He L. 2011. Device-associated infection rates in 398 intensive care units in Shanghai, China: International Nosocomial Infection Control Consortium (INICC) findings. Int J Infect Dis15:e774–e780. doi: 10.1016/j.ijid.2011.06.009. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
624. Sadoyma G, Diogo Filho A, Gontijo Filho PP. 2006. Central venous catheter-related bloodstream infection caused by Staphylococcus aureus: microbiology and risk factors. Braz J Infect Dis10:100–106. doi: 10.1590/S1413-86702006000200006. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
625. Collignon P, Soni N, Pearson I, Sorrell T, Woods P. 1988. Sepsis associated with central vein catheters in critically ill patients. Intensive Care Med14:227–231. doi: 10.1007/BF00717995. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
626. Collignon PJ, Munro R, Sorrell TC. 1984. Systemic sepsis and intravenous devices. A prospective survey. Med J Aust141:345–348. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
627. Wisplinghoff H, Bischoff T, Tallent SM, Seifert H, Wenzel RP, Edmond MB. 2004. Nosocomial bloodstream infections in US hospitals: analysis of 24,179 cases from a prospective nationwide surveillance study. Clin Infect Dis39:309–317. doi: 10.1086/421946. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
628. Mermel LA, Farr BM, Sherertz RJ, Raad II, O'Grady N, Harris JS, Craven DE, Infectious Diseases Society of America, American College of Critical Care Medicine, Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America . 2001. Guidelines for the management of intravascular catheter-related infections. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol22:222–242. doi: 10.1086/501893. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
629. Malanoski GJ, Samore MH, Pefanis A, Karchmer AW. 1995. Staphylococcus aureus catheter-associated bacteremia. Minimal effective therapy and unusual infectious complications associated with arterial sheath catheters. Arch Intern Med155:1161–1166. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
630. Thomas MG, Morris AJ. 2005. Cannula-associated Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia: outcome in relation to treatment. Intern Med J35:319–330. doi: 10.1111/j.1445-5994.2005.00823.x. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
631. Mylotte JM, McDermott C. 1987. Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia caused by infected intravenous catheters. Am J Infect Control15:1–6. doi: 10.1016/0196-6553(87)90069-1. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
632. Dugdale DC, Ramsey PG. 1990. Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia in patients with Hickman catheters. Am J Med89:137–141. doi: 10.1016/0002-9343(90)90290-T. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
633. Rosen AB, Fowler VG Jr, Corey GR, Downs SM, Biddle AK, Li J, Jollis JG. 1999. Cost-effectiveness of transesophageal echocardiography to determine the duration of therapy for intravascular catheter-associated Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Ann Intern Med130:810–820. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-130-10-199905180-00004. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
634. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2011. Vital signs: central line-associated blood stream infections—United States, 2001, 2008, and 2009. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep60:243–248. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
635. Boyce JM, Pittet D, Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee, HICPAC/SHEA/APIC/IDSA Hand Hygiene Task Force . 2002. Guideline for hand hygiene in health-care settings. Recommendations of the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee and the HIPAC/SHEA/APIC/IDSA Hand Hygiene Task Force. Am J Infect Control30:S1–S46. doi: 10.1067/mic.2002.130391. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
636. Larson EL, Quiros D, Lin SX. 2007. Dissemination of the CDC's Hand Hygiene Guideline and impact on infection rates. Am J Infect Control35:666–675. doi: 10.1016/j.ajic.2006.10.006. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
637. Yoshida J, Ishimaru T, Kikuchi T, Matsubara N, Ueno T, Hirata N, Koyanagi N. 2010. Central line-associated bloodstream infection: is the hospital epidemiology of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus relevant?J Infect Chemother16:33–37. doi: 10.1007/s10156-009-0018-Z. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
638. Marr KA, Sexton DJ, Conlon PJ, Corey GR, Schwab SJ, Kirkland KB. 1997. Catheter-related bacteremia and outcome of attempted catheter salvage in patients undergoing hemodialysis. Ann Intern Med127:275–280. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-127-4-199708150-00003. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
639. Inrig JK, Reed SD, Szczech LA, Engemann JJ, Friedman JY, Corey GR, Schulman KA, Reller LB, Fowler VG Jr. 2006. Relationship between clinical outcomes and vascular access type among hemodialysis patients with Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol1:518–524. doi: 10.2215/CJN.01301005. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
640. Ehni WF, Reller LB. 1989. Short-course therapy for catheter-associated Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Arch Intern Med149:533–536. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
641. Nielsen J, Ladefoged SD, Kolmos HJ. 1998. Dialysis catheter-related septicaemia—focus on Staphylococcus aureus septicaemia. Nephrol Dial Transplant13:2847–2852. doi: 10.1093/ndt/13.11.2847. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
642. Pearson ML.1996. Guideline for prevention of intravascular device-related infections. Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol17:438–473. doi: 10.1086/647338. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
643. Fowler VG Jr, Justice A, Moore C, Benjamin DK Jr, Woods CW, Campbell S, Reller LB, Corey GR, Day NP, Peacock SJ. 2005. Risk factors for hematogenous complications of intravascular catheter-associated Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Clin Infect Dis40:695–703. doi: 10.1086/427806. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
644. Libman H, Arbeit RD. 1984. Complications associated with Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Arch Intern Med144:541–545. doi: 10.1001/archinte.1984.00350150137033. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
645. Shah M, Watanakunakorn C. 1979. Changing patterns of Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Am J Med Sci278:115–121. doi: 10.1097/00000441-197909000-00002. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
646. Crowley AL, Peterson GE, Benjamin DK Jr, Rimmer SH, Todd C, Cabell CH, Reller LB, Ryan T, Corey GR, Fowler VG Jr. 2008. Venous thrombosis in patients with short- and long-term central venous catheter-associated Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Crit Care Med36:385–390. doi: 10.1097/01.CCM.0B013E3181611F914. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
647. Mermel LA, Allon M, Bouza E, Craven DE, Flynn P, O'Grady NP, Raad II, Rijnders BJ, Sherertz RJ, Warren DK. 2009. Clinical practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of intravascular catheter-related infection: 2009 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis49:1–45. doi: 10.1086/599376. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
648. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2005. Reduction in central line-associated bloodstream infections among patients in intensive care units—Pennsylvania, April 2001-March 2005. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep54:1013–1016. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
649. Eggimann P, Harbarth S, Constantin MN, Touveneau S, Chevrolet JC, Pittet D. 2000. Impact of a prevention strategy targeted at vascular-access care on incidence of infections acquired in intensive care. Lancet355:1864–1868. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(00)02291-1. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
650. Maki DG, Ringer M, Alvarado CJ. 1991. Prospective randomised trial of povidone-iodine, alcohol, and chlorhexidine for prevention of infection associated with central venous and arterial catheters. Lancet338:339–343. doi: 10.1016/0140-6736(91)90479-9. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
651. O'Grady NP, Alexander M, Burns LA, Dellinger EP, Garland J, Heard SO, Lipsett PA, Masur H, Mermel LA, Pearson ML, Raad II, Randolph A, Rupp ME, Saint S, Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee . 2011. Guidelines for the prevention of intravascular cather-related infections, 2011. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA: http://www.cdc.gov/hicpac/pdf/guidelines/bsi-guidelines-2011.pdf. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
652. Fowler VG Jr, Sanders LL, Sexton DJ, Kong L, Marr KA, Gopal AK, Gottlieb G, McClelland RS, Corey GR. 1998. Outcome of Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia according to compliance with recommendations of infectious diseases specialists: experience with 244 patients. Clin Infect Dis27:478–486. doi: 10.1086/514686. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
653. Poole CV, Carlton D, Bimbo L, Allon M. 2004. Treatment of catheter-related bacteraemia with an antibiotic lock protocol: effect of bacterial pathogen. Nephrol Dial Transplant19:1237–1244. doi: 10.1093/ndt/gfh041. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
654. McGrath MH, Burkhardt BR. 1984. The safety and efficacy of breast implants for augmentation mammaplasty. Plast Reconstr Surg74:550–560. doi: 10.1097/00006534-198410000-00019. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
655. Brand KG.1993. Infection of mammary prostheses: a survey and the question of prevention. Ann Plast Surg30:289–295. doi: 10.1097/00000637-199304000-00001. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
656. Kjoller K, Holmich LR, Jacobsen PH, Friis S, Fryzek J, McLaughlin JK, Lipworth L, Henriksen TF, Jorgensen S, Bittmann S, Olsen JH. 2002. Epidemiological investigation of local complications after cosmetic breast implant surgery in Denmark. Ann Plast Surg48:229–237. doi: 10.1097/00000637-200203000-00001. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
657. De Cholnoky T.1970. Augmentation mammaplasty. Survey of complications in 10,941 patients by 265 surgeons. Plast Reconstr Surg45:573–577. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
658. Feldman EM, Kontoyiannis DP, Sharabi SE, Lee E, Kaufman Y, Heller L. 2010. Breast implant infections: is cefazolin enough?Plast Reconstr Surg126:779–785. doi: 10.1097/PRS.0b013e3181e5f7ff. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
659. Ahn CY, Ko CY, Wagar EA, Wong RS, Shaw WW. 1996. Microbial evaluation: 139 implants removed from symptomatic patients. Plast Reconstr Surg98:1225–1229. doi: 10.1097/00006534-199612000-00016. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
660. Pittet B, Montandon D, Pittet D. 2005. Infection in breast implants. Lancet Infect Dis5:94–106. doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(05)01281-8. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
661. Siggelkow W, Klosterhalfen B, Klinge U, Rath W, Faridi A. 2004. Analysis of local complications following explantation of silicone breast implants. Breast13:122–128. doi: 10.1016/j.breast.2003.08.003. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
662. Darouiche RO, Meade R, Mansouri MD, Netscher DT. 2002. In vivo efficacy of antimicrobe-impregnated saline-filled silicone implants. Plast Reconstr Surg109:1352–1357. doi: 10.1097/00006534-200204010-00022. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
663. Schoenbaum SC, Gardner P, Shillito J. 1975. Infections of cerebrospinal fluid shunts: epidemiology, clinical manifestations, and therapy. J Infect Dis131:543–552. doi: 10.1093/infdis/131.5.543. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
664. Kulkarni AV, Drake JM, Lamberti-Pasculli M. 2001. Cerebrospinal fluid shunt infection: a prospective study of risk factors. J Neurosurg94:195–201. doi: 10.3171/jns.2001.94.2.0195. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
665. Walters BC, Hoffman HJ, Hendrick EB, Humphreys RP. 1984. Cerebrospinal fluid shunt infection. Influences on initial management and subsequent outcome. J Neurosurg60:1014–1021. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
666. Kestle JR, Garton HJ, Whitehead WE, Drake JM, Kulkarni AV, Cochrane DD, Muszynski C, Walker ML. 2006. Management of shunt infections: a multicenter pilot study. J Neurosurg105:177–181. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
667. Renier D, Lacombe J, Pierre-Kahn A, Sainte-Rose C, Hirsch JF. 1984. Factors causing acute shunt infection. Computer analysis of 1174 operations. J Neurosurg61:1072–1078. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
668. Tunkel AR, Hartman BJ, Kaplan SL, Kaufman BA, Roos KL, Scheld WM, Whitley RJ. 2004. Practice guidelines for the management of bacterial meningitis. Clin Infect Dis39:1267–1284. doi: 10.1086/425368. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
669. Wilson SK, Delk JR II. 1995. Inflatable penile implant infection: predisposing factors and treatment suggestions. J Urol153:659–661. doi: 10.1016/S0022-5347(01)67678-X. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
670. Eid JF, Wilson SK, Cleves M, Salem EA. 2012. Coated implants and “no touch” surgical technique decreases risk of infection in inflatable penile prosthesis implantation to 0.46%. Urology79:1310–1315. doi: 10.1016/j.urology.2011.11.076. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
671. Darouiche RO, Bella AJ, Boone TB, Brock G, Broderick GA, Burnett AL, Carrion R, Carson C III, Christine B, Dhabuwala CB, Hakim LS, Henry G, Jones LA, Khera M, Montague DK, Nehra A. 2013. North American consensus document on infection of penile prostheses. Urology82:937–942. doi: 10.1016/j.urology.2013.05.048. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
672. Chickering HT, Park JH. 1919. Staphylococcus aureus pneumonia. JAMA72:617–626. doi: 10.1001/jama.1919.02610090001001. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
673. Wallace HJ.1937. Specimen from a case of staphylococcal pneumonia. Proc R Soc Med30:885–886. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
674. Johnson A.1944. Report on a case of staphylococcal pneumonia with staphylococcal septicaemia: treated with penicillin. Ulster Med J13:122-3–122-4, 144–149. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
675. American Thoracic Society, Infectious Diseases Society of America. 2005. Guidelines for the management of adults with hospital-acquired, ventilator-associated, and healthcare-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med171:388–416. doi: 10.1164/rccm.200405-644ST. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
676. Safdar N, Crnich CJ, Maki DG. 2005. The pathogenesis of ventilator-associated pneumonia: its relevance to developing effective strategies for prevention. Respir Care50:725–739. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
677. Nseir S, Di Pompeo C, Pronnier P, Beague S, Onimus T, Saulnier F, Grandbastien B, Mathieu D, Delvallez-Roussel M, Durocher A. 2002. Nosocomial tracheobronchitis in mechanically ventilated patients: incidence, aetiology and outcome. Eur Respir J20:1483–1489. doi: 10.1183/09031936.02.00012902. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
678. Rello J, Quintana E, Ausina V, Castella J, Luquin M, Net A, Prats G. 1991. Incidence, etiology, and outcome of nosocomial pneumonia in mechanically ventilated patients. Chest100:439–444. doi: 10.1378/chest.100.2.439. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
679. Kollef MH, Shorr A, Tabak YP, Gupta V, Liu LZ, Johannes RS. 2005. Epidemiology and outcomes of health-care-associated pneumonia: results from a large US database of culture-positive pneumonia. Chest128:3854–3862. doi: 10.1378/chest.128.6.3854. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
680. Lee MS, Walker V, Chen LF, Sexton DJ, Anderson DJ. 2013. The epidemiology of ventilator-associated pneumonia in a network of community hospitals: a prospective multicenter study. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol34:657–662. doi: 10.1086/670991. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
681. Jones RN.2003. Global epidemiology of antimicrobial resistance among community-acquired and nosocomial pathogens: a five-year summary from the SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program (1997-2001). Semin Respir Crit Care Med24:121–134. doi: 10.1055/s-2003-37923. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
682. Chawla R.2008. Epidemiology, etiology, and diagnosis of hospital-acquired pneumonia and ventilator-associated pneumonia in Asian countries. Am J Infect Control36:S93–S100. doi: 10.1016/j.ajic.2007.05.011. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
683. Shorr AF, Tabak YP, Gupta V, Johannes RS, Liu LZ, Kollef MH. 2006. Morbidity and cost burden of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in early onset ventilator-associated pneumonia. Crit Care10:R97. doi: 10.1186/cc4934. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
684. Echols RM, Tillotson GS, Song JX, Tosiello RL. 2008. Clinical trial design for mild-to-moderate community-acquired pneumonia—an industry perspective. Clin Infect Dis47(Suppl 3):S166–S175. doi: 10.1086/591399. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
685. Jones RN.2010. Microbial etiologies of hospital-acquired bacterial pneumonia and ventilator-associated bacterial pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis51(Suppl 1):S81–S87. doi: 10.1086/653053. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
686. Osiyemi O, Dickinson G. 2000. Gram-positive pneumonia. Curr Infect Dis Rep2:207–214. doi: 10.1007/s11908-000-0037-5. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
687. Carratala J, Mykietiuk A, Fernandez-Sabe N, Suarez C, Dorca J, Verdaguer R, Manresa F, Gudiol F. 2007. Health care-associated pneumonia requiring hospital admission: epidemiology, antibiotic therapy, and clinical outcomes. Arch Intern Med167:1393–1399. doi: 10.1001/archinte.167.13.1393. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
688. Gillet Y, Issartel B, Vanhems P, Fournet JC, Lina G, Bes M, Vandenesch F, Piemont Y, Brousse N, Floret D, Etienne J. 2002. Association between Staphylococcus aureus strains carrying gene for Panton-Valentine leukocidin and highly lethal necrotising pneumonia in young immunocompetent patients. Lancet359:753–759. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(02)07877-7. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
689. Francis JS, Doherty MC, Lopatin U, Johnston CP, Sinha G, Ross T, Cai M, Hansel NN, Perl T, Ticehurst JR, Carroll K, Thomas DL, Nuermberger E, Bartlett JG. 2005. Severe community-onset pneumonia in healthy adults caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus carrying the Panton-Valentine leukocidin genes. Clin Infect Dis40:100–107. doi: 10.1086/427148. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
690. Kallen AJ, Reed C, Patton M, Arnold KE, Finelli L, Hageman J. 2010. Staphylococcus aureus community-onset pneumonia in patients admitted to children's hospitals during autumn and winter of 2006-2007. Epidemiol Infect138:666–672. doi: 10.1017/S095026880999135X. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
691. Hageman JC, Uyeki TM, Francis JS, Jernigan DB, Wheeler JG, Bridges CB, Barenkamp SJ, Sievert DM, Srinivasan A, Doherty MC, McDougal LK, Killgore GE, Lopatin UA, Coffman R, MacDonald JK, McAllister SK, Fosheim GE, Patel JB, McDonald LC. 2006. Severe community-acquired pneumonia due to Staphylococcus aureus, 2003-04 influenza season. Emerg Infect Dis12:894–899. doi: 10.3201/eid1206.051141. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
692. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2007. Severe methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus community-acquired pneumonia associated with influenza—Louisiana and Georgia, December 2006-January 2007. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep56:325–329. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
693. Gonzalez BE, Hulten KG, Dishop MK, Lamberth LB, Hammerman WA, Mason EO Jr, Kaplan SL. 2005. Pulmonary manifestations in children with invasive community-acquired Staphylococcus aureus infection. Clin Infect Dis41:583–590. doi: 10.1086/432475. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
694. Tong SY, Anstey NM, Lum GD, Lilliebridge RA, Stephens DP, Currie BJ. 2008. Fatal community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus pneumonia after influenza. Med J Aust188:61. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
695. Peleg AY, Munckhof WJ. 2004. Fatal necrotising pneumonia due to community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Med J Aust181:228–229. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
696. Wunderink RG.2013. How important is methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus as a cause of community-acquired pneumonia and what is best antimicrobial therapy?Infect Dis Clin North Am27:177–188. doi: 10.1016/j.idc.2012.11.006. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
697. Moran GJ, Krishnadasan A, Gorwitz RJ, Fosheim GE, Albrecht V, Limbago B, Talan DA, EMERGEncy ID NET Study Group . 2012. Prevalence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus as an etiology of community-acquired pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis54:1126–1133. doi: 10.1093/cid/cis022. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
698. Chalmers JD, Taylor JK, Singanayagam A, Fleming GB, Akram AR, Mandal P, Choudhury G, Hill AT. 2011. Epidemiology, antibiotic therapy, and clinical outcomes in health care-associated pneumonia: a UK cohort study. Clin Infect Dis53:107–113. doi: 10.1093/cid/cir274. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
699. Charles PG, Whitby M, Fuller AJ, Stirling R, Wright AA, Korman TM, Holmes PW, Christiansen KJ, Waterer GW, Pierce RJ, Mayall BC, Armstrong JG, Catton MG, Nimmo GR, Johnson B, Hooy M, Grayson ML, Australian CAP Study Collaboration . 2008. The etiology of community-acquired pneumonia in Australia: why penicillin plus doxycycline or a macrolide is the most appropriate therapy. Clin Infect Dis46:1513–1521. doi: 10.1086/586749. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
700. Bryant RE, Salmon CJ. 1996. Pleural empyema. Clin Infect Dis22:747–762; quiz 763–744. doi: 10.1093/clinids/22.5.747. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
701. Oki T, Funai K, Sekihara K, Shimizu K, Shiiya N. 2013. Refractory methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus empyema invasion from a cervical abscess: report of a case. Kyobu Geka66:852–854. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
702. Huang SS, Hinrichsen VL, Datta R, Spurchise L, Miroshnik I, Nelson K, Platt R. 2011. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection and hospitalization in high-risk patients in the year following detection. PLoS One6:e24340. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0024340. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
703. Datta R, Huang SS. 2008. Risk of infection and death due to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in long-term carriers. Clin Infect Dis47:176–181. doi: 10.1086/589241. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
704. Wooten DA, Winston LG. 2013. Risk factors for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in patients with community-onset and hospital-onset pneumonia. Respir Med107:1266–1270. doi: 10.1016/j.rmed.2013.05.006. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
705. Shindo Y, Ito R, Kobayashi D, Ando M, Ichikawa M, Shiraki A, Goto Y, Fukui Y, Iwaki M, Okumura J, Yamaguchi I, Yagi T, Tanikawa Y, Sugino Y, Shindoh J, Ogasawara T, Nomura F, Saka H, Yamamoto M, Taniguchi H, Suzuki R, Saito H, Kawamura T, Hasegawa Y. 2013. Risk factors for drug-resistant pathogens in community-acquired and healthcare-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med188:985–995. doi: 10.1164/rccm.201301-0079OC. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
706. Venditti M, Falcone M, Corrao S, Licata G, Serra P, Study Group of the Italian Society of Internal Medicine . 2009. Outcomes of patients hospitalized with community-acquired, health care-associated, and hospital-acquired pneumonia. Ann Intern Med150:19–26. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-150-1-200901060-00005. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
707. Ma HM, Ip M, Woo J, Hui DS, Lui GC, Lee NL, Chan PK, Rainer TH. 2013. Risk factors for drug-resistant bacterial pneumonia in older patients hospitalized with pneumonia in a Chinese population. QJM106:823–829. doi: 10.1093/qjmed/hct152. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
708. Chung DR, Song JH, Kim SH, Thamlikitkul V, Huang SG, Wang H, So TM, Yasin RM, Hsueh PR, Carlos CC, Hsu LY, Buntaran L, Lalitha MK, Kim MJ, Choi JY, Kim SI, Ko KS, Kang CI, Peck KR, Asian Network for Surveillance of Resistant Pathogens Study Group . 2011. High prevalence of multidrug-resistant nonfermenters in hospital-acquired pneumonia in Asia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med184:1409–1417. doi: 10.1164/rccm.201102-0349OC. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
709. Yap V, Datta D, Metersky ML. 2013. Is the present definition of health care-associated pneumonia the best way to define risk of infection with antibiotic-resistant pathogens?Infect Dis Clin North Am27:1–18. doi: 10.1016/j.idc.2012.11.002. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
710. Garcia-Vidal C, Viasus D, Roset A, Adamuz J, Verdaguer R, Dorca J, Gudiol F, Carratala J. 2011. Low incidence of multidrug-resistant organisms in patients with healthcare-associated pneumonia requiring hospitalization. Clin Microbiol Infect17:1659–1665. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2011.03484.x. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
711. Shorr AF, Zilberberg MD, Reichley R, Kan J, Hoban A, Hoffman J, Micek ST, Kollef MH. 2012. Validation of a clinical score for assessing the risk of resistant pathogens in patients with pneumonia presenting to the emergency department. Clin Infect Dis54:193–198. doi: 10.1093/cid/cir813. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
712. Shorr AF, Myers DE, Huang DB, Nathanson BH, Emons MF, Kollef MH. 2013. A risk score for identifying methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in patients presenting to the hospital with pneumonia. BMC Infect Dis13:268. doi: 10.1186/1471-2334-13-268. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
713. Aliberti S, Di Pasquale M, Zanaboni AM, Cosentini R, Brambilla AM, Seghezzi S, Tarsia P, Mantero M, Blasi F. 2012. Stratifying risk factors for multidrug-resistant pathogens in hospitalized patients coming from the community with pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis54:470–478. doi: 10.1093/cid/cir840. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
714. Aliberti S, Cilloniz C, Chalmers JD, Zanaboni AM, Cosentini R, Tarsia P, Pesci A, Blasi F, Torres A. 2013. Multidrug-resistant pathogens in hospitalised patients coming from the community with pneumonia: a European perspective. Thorax68:997–999. doi: 10.1136/thoraxjnl-2013-203384. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
715. Park SC, Kang YA, Park BH, Kim EY, Park MS, Kim YS, Kim SK, Chang J, Jung JY. 2012. Poor prediction of potentially drug-resistant pathogens using current criteria of health care-associated pneumonia. Respir Med106:1311–1319. doi: 10.1016/j.rmed.2012.04.003. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
716. Adem PV, Montgomery CP, Husain AN, Koogler TK, Arangelovich V, Humilier M, Boyle-Vavra S, Daum RS. 2005. Staphylococcus aureus sepsis and the Waterhouse-Friderichsen syndrome in children. N Engl J Med353:1245–1251. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa044194. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
717. Labandeira-Rey M, Couzon F, Boisset S, Brown EL, Bes M, Benito Y, Barbu EM, Vazquez V, Hook M, Etienne J, Vandenesch F, Bowden MG. 2007. Staphylococcus aureus Panton-Valentine leukocidin causes necrotizing pneumonia. Science315:1130–1133. doi: 10.1126/science.1137165. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
718. Diep BA, Chan L, Tattevin P, Kajikawa O, Martin TR, Basuino L, Mai TT, Marbach H, Braughton KR, Whitney AR, Gardner DJ, Fan X, Tseng CW, Liu GY, Badiou C, Etienne J, Lina G, Matthay MA, DeLeo FR, Chambers HF. 2010. Polymorphonuclear leukocytes mediate Staphylococcus aureus Panton-Valentine leukocidin-induced lung inflammation and injury. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A107:5587–5592. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0912403107. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
719. Bubeck Wardenburg J, Bae T, Otto M, Deleo FR, Schneewind O. 2007. Poring over pores: alpha-hemolysin and Panton-Valentine leukocidin in Staphylococcus aureus pneumonia. Nat Med13:1405–1406. doi: 10.1038/nm1207-1405. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
720. Kebaier C, Chamberland RR, Allen IC, Gao X, Broglie PM, Hall JD, Jania C, Doerschuk CM, Tilley SL, Duncan JA. 2012. Staphylococcus aureus alpha-hemolysin mediates virulence in a murine model of severe pneumonia through activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome. J Infect Dis205:807–817. doi: 10.1093/infdis/jir846. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
721. Parimon T, Li Z, Bolz DD, McIndoo ER, Bayer CR, Stevens DL, Bryant AE. 2013. Staphylococcus aureus alpha-hemolysin promotes platelet-neutrophil aggregate formation. J Infect Dis208:761–770. doi: 10.1093/infdis/jit235. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
722. DeLeo FR, Otto M. 2008. An antidote for Staphylococcus aureus pneumonia?J Exp Med205:271–274. doi: 10.1084/jem.20080167. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
723. Hua L, Hilliard JJ, Shi Y, Tkaczyk C, Cheng LI, Yu X, Datta V, Ren S, Feng H, Zinsou R, Keller A, O'Day T, Du Q, Cheng L, Damschroder M, Robbie G, Suzich J, Stover CK, Sellman BR. 2014. Assessment of an anti-alpha-toxin monoclonal antibody for prevention and treatment of Staphylococcus aureus-induced pneumonia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother58:1108–1117. doi: 10.1128/AAC.02190-13. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
724. DeRyke CA, Lodise TP Jr, Rybak MJ, McKinnon PS. 2005. Epidemiology, treatment, and outcomes of nosocomial bacteremic Staphylococcus aureus pneumonia. Chest128:1414–1422. doi: 10.1378/chest.128.3.1414. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
725. Vidaur L, Planas K, Sierra R, Dimopoulos G, Ramirez A, Lisboa T, Rello J. 2008. Ventilator-associated pneumonia: impact of organisms on clinical resolution and medical resources utilization. Chest133:625–632. doi: 10.1378/chest.07-2020. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
726. Zahar JR, Clec'h C, Tafflet M, Garrouste-Orgeas M, Jamali S, Mourvillier B, De Lassence A, Descorps-Declere A, Adrie C, Costa de Beauregard MA, Azoulay E, Schwebel C, Timsit JF, Outcomerea Study Group . 2005. Is methicillin resistance associated with a worse prognosis in Staphylococcus aureus ventilator-associated pneumonia?Clin Infect Dis41:1224–1231. doi: 10.1086/496923. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
727. Gillet Y, Vanhems P, Lina G, Bes M, Vandenesch F, Floret D, Etienne J. 2007. Factors predicting mortality in necrotizing community-acquired pneumonia caused by Staphylococcus aureus containing Panton-Valentine leukocidin. Clin Infect Dis45:315–321. doi: 10.1086/519263. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
728. Rubinstein E, Kollef MH, Nathwani D. 2008. Pneumonia caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Clin Infect Dis46(Suppl 5):S378–S385. doi: 10.1086/533594. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
729. Cuquemelle E, Soulis F, Villers D, Roche-Campo F, Ara Somohano C, Fartoukh M, Kouatchet A, Mourvillier B, Dellamonica J, Picard W, Schmidt M, Boulain T, Brun-Buisson C, A/H1N1 REVA-SRLF Study Group . 2011. Can procalcitonin help identify associated bacterial infection in patients with severe influenza pneumonia? A multicentre study. Intensive Care Med37:796–800. doi: 10.1007/s00134-011-2189-1. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
730. Lobo LJ, Reed KD, Wunderink RG. 2010. Expanded clinical presentation of community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus pneumonia. Chest138:130–136. doi: 10.1378/chest.09-1562. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
731. Sicot N, Khanafer N, Meyssonnier V, Dumitrescu O, Tristan A, Bes M, Lina G, Vandenesch F, Vanhems P, Etienne J, Gillet Y. 2013. Methicillin resistance is not a predictor of severity in community-acquired Staphylococcus aureus necrotizing pneumonia—results of a prospective observational study. Clin Microbiol Infect19:E142–E148. doi: 10.1111/1469-0691.12022. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
732. Vardakas KZ, Matthaiou DK, Falagas ME. 2009. Comparison of community-acquired pneumonia due to methicillin-resistant and methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus producing the Panton-Valentine leukocidin. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis13:1476–1485. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
733. Cystic Fibrosis Foundation. 2013. Patient registry: annual data report 2013. Cystic Fibrosis Foundation, Bethesda, MD: http://www.cff.org/UploadedFiles/research/ClinicalResearch/PatientRegistryReport/2013_CFF_Patient_Registry_Annual_Data_Report.pdf. [Google Scholar]
734. Cakir Aktas N, Erturan Z, Karatuna O, Karahasan Yagci A. 2013. Panton-Valentine leukocidin and biofilm production of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from respiratory tract. J Infect Dev Ctries7:888–891. doi: 10.3855/jidc.4135. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
735. Besier S, Smaczny C, von Mallinckrodt C, Krahl A, Ackermann H, Brade V, Wichelhaus TA. 2007. Prevalence and clinical significance of Staphylococcus aureus small-colony variants in cystic fibrosis lung disease. J Clin Microbiol45:168–172. doi: 10.1128/JCM.01510-06. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
736. Wolter DJ, Emerson JC, McNamara S, Buccat AM, Qin X, Cochrane E, Houston LS, Rogers GB, Marsh P, Prehar K, Pope CE, Blackledge M, Deziel E, Bruce KD, Ramsey BW, Gibson RL, Burns JL, Hoffman LR. 2013. Staphylococcus aureus small-colony variants are independently associated with worse lung disease in children with cystic fibrosis. Clin Infect Dis57:384–391. doi: 10.1093/cid/cit270. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
737. Dasenbrook EC, Checkley W, Merlo CA, Konstan MW, Lechtzin N, Boyle MP. 2010. Association between respiratory tract methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and survival in cystic fibrosis. JAMA303:2386–2392. doi: 10.1001/jama.2010.791. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
738. Micek ST, Reichley RM, Kollef MH. 2011. Health care-associated pneumonia (HCAP): empiric antibiotics targeting methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa predict optimal outcome. Medicine (Baltimore)90:390–395. doi: 10.1097/MD.0b013e318239cf0a. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
739. Grenier C, Pepin J, Nault V, Howson J, Fournier X, Poirier MS, Cabana J, Craig C, Beaudoin M, Valiquette L. 2011. Impact of guideline-consistent therapy on outcome of patients with healthcare-associated and community-acquired pneumonia. J Antimicrob Chemother66:1617-1624. doi: 10.1093/jac/dkr176. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
740. Griffin AT, Peyrani P, Wiemken TL, Ramirez JA, Arnold FW. 2013. Empiric therapy directed against MRSA in patients admitted to the intensive care unit does not improve outcomes in community-acquired pneumonia. Infection41:517–523. doi: 10.1007/s15010-012-0363-1. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
741. Torres A, Ferrer M, Badia JR. 2010. Treatment guidelines and outcomes of hospital-acquired and ventilator-associated pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis51(Suppl 1):S48–S53. doi: 10.1086/653049. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
742. Attridge RT, Frei CR, Restrepo MI, Lawson KA, Ryan L, Pugh MJ, Anzueto A, Mortensen EM. 2011. Guideline-concordant therapy and outcomes in healthcare-associated pneumonia. Eur Respir J38:878–887. doi: 10.1183/09031936.00141110. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
743. Madaras-Kelly KJ, Remington RE, Sloan KL, Fan VS. 2012. Guideline-based antibiotics and mortality in healthcare-associated pneumonia. J Gen Intern Med27:845–852. doi: 10.1007/s11606-012-2011-y. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
744. Rubinstein E, Cammarata S, Oliphant T, Wunderink R, Linezolid Nosocomial Pneumonia Study Group . 2001. Linezolid (PNU-100766) versus vancomycin in the treatment of hospitalized patients with nosocomial pneumonia: a randomized, double-blind, multicenter study. Clin Infect Dis32:402–412. doi: 10.1086/318486. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
745. Wunderink RG, Cammarata SK, Oliphant TH, Kollef MH, Linezolid Nosocomial Pneumonia Study Group . 2003. Continuation of a randomized, double-blind, multicenter study of linezolid versus vancomycin in the treatment of patients with nosocomial pneumonia. Clin Ther25:980–992. doi: 10.1016/S0149-2918(03)80118-2. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
746. Wunderink RG, Rello J, Cammarata SK, Croos-Dabrera RV, Kollef MH. 2003. Linezolid vs vancomycin: analysis of two double-blind studies of patients with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus nosocomial pneumonia. Chest124:1789–1797. doi: 10.1378/chest.124.5.1789. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
747. Rybak MJ, Lomaestro BM, Rotschafer JC, Moellering RC, Craig WA, Billeter M, Dalovisio JR, Levine DP. 2009. Vancomycin therapeutic guidelines: a summary of consensus recommendations from the Infectious Diseases Society of America, the American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, and the Society of Infectious Diseases Pharmacists. Clin Infect Dis49:325–327. doi: 10.1086/600877. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
748. Wunderink RG, Niederman MS, Kollef MH, Shorr AF, Kunkel MJ, Baruch A, McGee WT, Reisman A, Chastre J. 2012. Linezolid in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus nosocomial pneumonia: a randomized, controlled study. Clin Infect Dis54:621–629. doi: 10.1093/cid/cir895. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
749. Torres A.2012. Antibiotic treatment against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus hospital- and ventilator-acquired pneumonia: a step forward but the battle continues. Clin Infect Dis54:630–632. doi: 10.1093/cid/cir907. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
750. Lahey T.2012. Questionable superiority of linezolid for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus nosocomial pneumonia: watch where you step. Clin Infect Dis55:159–160. doi: 10.1093/cid/cis329. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
751. Wolff M, Mourvillier B. 2012. Linezolid for the treatment of nosocomial pneumonia due to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Clin Infect Dis55:160–161. doi: 10.1093/cid/cis330. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
752. Taccone FS, Vincent JL, Denis O, Jacobs F. 2012. Should we abandon vancomycin for treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus pneumonia? Still questions to answer. Clin Infect Dis55:161–163. doi: 10.1093/cid/cis332 .)Reply55: 163–165, doi: 10.1093/cid/cis334.) [PubMed] [CrossRef] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
753. Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, Hill AT, Jamieson C, Le Jeune I, Macfarlane JT, Read RC, Roberts HJ, Levy ML, Wani M, Woodhead MA, Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee . 2009. BTS guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax64(Suppl 3):iii1–iii55. doi: 10.1136/thx.2009.121434. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
754. Diep BA, Afasizheva A, Le HN, Kajikawa O, Matute-Bello G, Tkaczyk C, Sellman B, Badiou C, Lina G, Chambers HF. 2013. Effects of linezolid on suppressing in vivo production of staphylococcal toxins and improving survival outcomes in a rabbit model of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus necrotizing pneumonia. J Infect Dis208:75–82. doi: 10.1093/infdis/jit129. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
755. Martinez-Olondris P, Rigol M, Soy D, Guerrero L, Agusti C, Quera MA, Li Bassi G, Esperatti M, Luque N, Liapikou M, Filella X, Marco F, de la Bellacasa JP, Torres A. 2012. Efficacy of linezolid compared to vancomycin in an experimental model of pneumonia induced by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in ventilated pigs. Crit Care Med40:162–168. doi: 10.1097/CCM.0b013e31822d74a2. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
756. Li HT, Zhang TT, Huang J, Zhou YQ, Zhu JX, Wu BQ. 2011. Factors associated with the outcome of life-threatening necrotizing pneumonia due to community-acquired Staphylococcus aureus in adult and adolescent patients. Respiration81:448–460. doi: 10.1159/000319557. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
757. Subedi S, Baird R, Tong SY. 2014. Does the addition of lincosamides have mortality benefit in severe staphylococcal infection?, abstr C-765Abstr 54th Intersci Conf Antimicrob Agents Chemother, Washington, DC. [Google Scholar]
758. Silverman JA, Mortin LI, Vanpraagh AD, Li T, Alder J. 2005. Inhibition of daptomycin by pulmonary surfactant: in vitro modeling and clinical impact. J Infect Dis191:2149–2152. doi: 10.1086/430352. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
759. File TM Jr, Low DE, Eckburg PB, Talbot GH, Friedland HD, Lee J, Llorens L, Critchley I, Thye D. 2010. Integrated analysis of FOCUS 1 and FOCUS 2: randomized, doubled-blinded, multicenter phase 3 trials of the efficacy and safety of ceftaroline fosamil versus ceftriaxone in patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis51:1395–1405. doi: 10.1086/657313. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
760. Lo DKH, Hurley MN, Muhlebach MS, Smyth AR. 2013. Interventions for the eradication of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in people with cystic fibrosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev2:CD009650. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD009650.pub3. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
761. Jennings MT, Boyle MP, Weaver D, Callahan KA, Dasenbrook EC. 2014. Eradication strategy for persistent methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection in individuals with cystic fibrosis—the PMEP trial: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Trials15:223. doi: 10.1186/1745-6215-15-223. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
762. Fusco NM, Toussaint KA, Prescott WA Jr. 2015. Antibiotic management of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus-associated acute pulmonary exacerbations in cystic fibrosis. Ann Pharmacother49:458–468. doi: 10.1177/1060028014567526. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
763. Darouiche RO, Hamill RJ, Greenberg SB, Weathers SW, Musher DM. 1992. Bacterial spinal epidural abscess. Review of 43 cases and literature survey. Medicine (Baltimore)71:369–385. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
764. Bryan CS.2002. Infectious diseases in primary care, p 111–152. WB Saunders, Philadelphia, PA. [Google Scholar]
765. Darouiche RO.2006. Spinal epidural abscess. N Engl J Med355:2012–2020. doi: 10.1056/NEJMra055111. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
766. Reihsaus E, Waldbaur H, Seeling W. 2000. Spinal epidural abscess: a meta-analysis of 915 patients. Neurosurg Rev23:175–204; discussion 205. doi: 10.1007/PL00011954. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
767. Lohr M, Reithmeier T, Ernestus RI, Ebel H, Klug N. 2005. Spinal epidural abscess: prognostic factors and comparison of different surgical treatment strategies. Acta Neurochir (Wien)147:159–166; discussion 166. doi: 10.1007/s00701-004-0414-1. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
768. Huang PY, Chen SF, Chang WN, Lu CH, Chuang YC, Tsai NW, Chang CC, Wang HC, Chien CC, Chen SH, Huang CR. 2012. Spinal epidural abscess in adults caused by Staphylococcus aureus: clinical characteristics and prognostic factors. Clin Neurol Neurosurg114:572–576. doi: 10.1016/j.clineuro.2011.12.006. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
769. Chen WC, Wang JL, Wang JT, Chen YC, Chang SC. 2008. Spinal epidural abscess due to Staphylococcus aureus: clinical manifestations and outcomes. J Microbiol Immunol Infect41:215–221. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
770. Feldenzer JA, McKeever PE, Schaberg DR, Campbell JA, Hoff JT. 1988. The pathogenesis of spinal epidural abscess: microangiographic studies in an experimental model. J Neurosurg69:110–114. doi: 10.3171/jns.1988.69.1.0110. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
771. Sillevis Smitt P, Tsafka A, van den Bent M, de Bruin H, Hendriks W, Vecht C, Teng-van de Zande F. 1999. Spinal epidural abscess complicating chronic epidural analgesia in 11 cancer patients: clinical findings and magnetic resonance imaging. J Neurol246:815–820. doi: 10.1007/s004150050460. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
772. Grewal S, Hocking G, Wildsmith JA. 2006. Epidural abscesses. Br J Anaesth96:292–302. doi: 10.1093/bja/ael006. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
773. Davis DP, Wold RM, Patel RJ, Tran AJ, Tokhi RN, Chan TC, Vilke GM. 2004. The clinical presentation and impact of diagnostic delays on emergency department patients with spinal epidural abscess. J Emerg Med26:285–291. doi: 10.1016/j.jemermed.2003.11.013. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
774. Curry WT Jr, Hoh BL, Amin-Hanjani S, Eskandar EN. 2005. Spinal epidural abscess: clinical presentation, management, and outcome. Surg Neurol63:364–371. doi: 10.1016/j.surneu.2004.08.081. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
775. Tang HJ, Lin HJ, Liu YC, Li CM. 2002. Spinal epidural abscess—experience with 46 patients and evaluation of prognostic factors. J Infect45:76–81. doi: 10.1053/jinf.2002.1013. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
776. Lu CH, Chang WN, Lui CC, Lee PY, Chang HW. 2002. Adult spinal epidural abscess: clinical features and prognostic factors. Clin Neurol Neurosurg104:306–310. doi: 10.1016/S0303-8467(02)00020-3. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
777. Wheeler D, Keiser P, Rigamonti D, Keay S. 1992. Medical management of spinal epidural abscesses: case report and review. Clin Infect Dis15:22–27. doi: 10.1093/clinids/15.1.22. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
778. Siddiq F, Chowfin A, Tight R, Sahmoun AE, Smego RA Jr. 2004. Medical vs surgical management of spinal epidural abscess. Arch Intern Med164:2409–2412. doi: 10.1001/archinte.164.22.2409. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
779. Pizon AF, Bonner MR, Wang HE, Kaplan RM. 2006. Ten years of clinical experience with adult meningitis at an urban academic medical center. J Emerg Med30:367–370. doi: 10.1016/j.jemermed.2005.07.010. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
780. Aguilar J, Urday-Cornejo V, Donabedian S, Perri M, Tibbetts R, Zervos M. 2010. Staphylococcus aureus meningitis: case series and literature review. Medicine (Baltimore)89:117–125. doi: 10.1097/MD.0b013e3181d5453d. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
781. Dzupova O, Rozsypal H, Prochazka B, Benes J. 2009. Acute bacterial meningitis in adults: predictors of outcome. Scand J Infect Dis41:348–354. doi: 10.1080/00365540902849391. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
782. Huang WC, Lee CH, Liu JW. 2010. Clinical characteristics and risk factors for mortality in patients with meningitis caused by Staphylococcus aureus and vancomycin minimal inhibitory concentrations against these isolates. J Microbiol Immunol Infect43:470–477. doi: 10.1016/S1684-1182(10)60073-4. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
783. Durand ML, Calderwood SB, Weber DJ, Miller SI, Southwick FS, Caviness VS Jr, Swartz MN. 1993. Acute bacterial meningitis in adults. A review of 493 episodes. N Engl J Med328:21–28. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199301073280104. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
784. Schlesinger LS, Ross SC, Schaberg DR. 1987. Staphylococcus aureus meningitis: a broad-based epidemiologic study. Medicine (Baltimore)66:148–156. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
785. Teh BW, Slavin MA. 2012. Staphylococcus aureus meningitis: barriers to treatment. Leuk Lymphoma53:1443–1444. doi: 10.3109/10428194.2012.668685. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
786. Pintado V, Pazos R, Jimenez-Mejias ME, Rodriguez-Guardado A, Gil A, Garcia-Lechuz JM, Cabellos C, Chaves F, Domingo P, Ramos A, Perez-Cecilia E, Domingo D. 2012. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus meningitis in adults: a multicenter study of 86 cases. Medicine (Baltimore)91:10–17. doi: 10.1097/MD.0b013e318243442b. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
787. Pintado V, Meseguer MA, Fortun J, Cobo J, Navas E, Quereda C, Corral I, Moreno S. 2002. Clinical study of 44 cases of Staphylococcus aureus meningitis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis21:864–868. doi: 10.1007/s10096-002-0814-1. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
788. Lerche A, Rasmussen N, Wandall JH, Bohr VA. 1995. Staphylococcus aureus meningitis: a review of 28 consecutive community-acquired cases. Scand J Infect Dis27:569–573. doi: 10.3109/00365549509047069. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
789. Lu CH, Chang WN. 2000. Adults with meningitis caused by oxacillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Clin Infect Dis31:723–727. doi: 10.1086/314034. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
790. Chang WN, Lu CH, Wu JJ, Chang HW, Tsai YC, Chen FT, Chien CC. 2001. Staphylococcus aureus meningitis in adults: a clinical comparison of infections caused by methicillin-resistant and methicillin-sensitive strains. Infection29:245–250. doi: 10.1007/s15010-001-1092-z. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
791. Rodriguez Guardado A, Maradona Hidalgo JA, Perez Gonzalez F, Carton Sanchez JA, Blanco A, Rial JC, Asensi Alvarez V. 2005. Postsurgery meningitis by Staphylococcus aureus: comparison between methicillin-sensitive and resistant strains. Med Clin (Barc)124:102–103. doi: 10.1157/13070850. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
792. Logigan C, Mihalache D, Dorneanu O, Turcu T. 2009. Study of nosocomial bacillary meningitis admitted in the Clinic of Infectious Diseases Iasi on a 20 years period. Rev Med Chir Soc Med Nat Iasi113:721–726. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
793. Givner LB, Kaplan SL. 1993. Meningitis due to Staphylococcus aureus in children. Clin Infect Dis16:766–771. doi: 10.1093/clind/16.6.766. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
794. Pedersen M, Benfield TL, Skinhoej P, Jensen AG. 2006. Haematogenous Staphylococcus aureus meningitis. A 10-year nationwide study of 96 consecutive cases. BMC Infect Dis6:49. doi: 10.1186/1471-2334-6-49. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
795. Jensen AG, Espersen F, Skinhoj P, Rosdahl VT, Frimodt-Moller N. 1993. Staphylococcus aureus meningitis. A review of 104 nationwide, consecutive cases. Arch Intern Med153:1902–1908. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
796. Matsubara H, Makimoto A, Higa T, Kawamoto H, Kanda Y, Kami M, Tanosaki R, Mineishi S, Ohira M, Takaue Y. 2003. Successful treatment of meningoencephalitis caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus with intrathecal vancomycin in an allogeneic peripheral blood stem cell transplant recipient. Bone Marrow Transplant31:65–67. doi: 10.1038/sj.bmt.1703799. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
797. Goto K, Ohi T, Namba A, Uemura N, Kitaguchi H. 2011. Successful treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus meningitis by intrathecal injection of vancomycin. Brain Nerve63:417–421. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
798. Dudley MN, Levitz RE, Quintiliani R, Hickingbotham JM, Nightingale CH. 1984. Pharmacokinetics of trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole in serum and cerebrospinal fluid of adult patients with normal meninges. Antimicrob Agents Chemother26:811–814. doi: 10.1128/AAC.26.6.811. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
799. Gerber P, Stucki A, Acosta F, Cottagnoud M, Cottagnoud P. 2006. Daptomycin is more efficacious than vancomycin against a methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus in experimental meningitis. J Antimicrob Chemother57:720–723. doi: 10.1093/jac/dkl007. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
800. Todd J, Fishaut M, Kapral F, Welch T. 1978. Toxic-shock syndrome associated with phage-group-I staphylococci. Lancetii:1116–1118. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
801. Herzer CM.2001. Toxic shock syndrome: broadening the differential diagnosis. J Am Board Fam Pract14:131–136. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
802. Issa NC, Thompson RL. 2001. Staphylococcal toxic shock syndrome. Suspicion and prevention are keys to control. Postgrad Med110:55–56, 59–62. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
803. Osterholm MT, Forfang JC. 1982. Toxic-shock syndrome in Minnesota: results of an active-passive surveillance system. J Infect Dis145:458–464. doi: 10.1093/infdis/145.4.458. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
804. DeVries AS, Lesher L, Schlievert PM, Rogers T, Villaume LG, Danila R, Lynfield R. 2011. Staphylococcal toxic shock syndrome 2000-2006: epidemiology, clinical features, and molecular characteristics. PLoS One6:e22997. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0022997. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
805. Gaventa S, Reingold AL, Hightower AW, Broome CV, Schwartz B, Hoppe C, Harwell J, Lefkowitz LK, Makintubee S, Cundiff DR, Sitze S, Toxic Shock Syndrome Study Group . 1989. Active surveillance for toxic shock syndrome in the United States, 1986. Rev Infect Dis11(Suppl 1):S28–S34. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
806. Hajjeh RA, Reingold A, Weil A, Shutt K, Schuchat A, Perkins BA. 1999. Toxic shock syndrome in the United States: surveillance update, 1979 1996. Emerg Infect Dis5:807–810. doi: 10.3201/eid0506.990611. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
807. Descloux E, Perpoint T, Ferry T, Lina G, Bes M, Vandenesch F, Mohammedi I, Etienne J. 2008. One in five mortality in non-menstrual toxic shock syndrome versus no mortality in menstrual cases in a balanced French series of 55 cases. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis27:37–43. doi: 10.1007/s10096-007-0405-2. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
808. Musser JM, Schlievert PM, Chow AW, Ewan P, Kreiswirth BN, Rosdahl VT, Naidu AS, Witte W, Selander RK. 1990. A single clone of Staphylococcus aureus causes the majority of cases of toxic shock syndrome. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A87:225–229. doi: 10.1073/pnas.87.1.225. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
809. Fraser J, Arcus V, Kong P, Baker E, Proft T. 2000. Superantigens—powerful modifiers of the immune system. Mol Med Today6:125–132. doi: 10.1016/S1357-4310(99)01657-3. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
810. Kalyan S, Chow AW. 2008. Staphylococcal toxic shock syndrome toxin-1 induces the translocation and secretion of high mobility group-1 protein from both activated T cells and monocytes. Mediators Inflamm2008:512196. doi: 10.1155/2008/512196. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
811. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1997. Case definitions for infectious conditions under public health surveillance. MMWR Recommend Rep46(RR-10):1–55. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
812. Low DE.2013. Toxic shock syndrome: major advances in pathogenesis, but not treatment. Crit Care Clin29:651–675. doi: 10.1016/j.ccc.2013.03.012. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
813. Lappin E, Ferguson AJ. 2009. Gram-positive toxic shock syndromes. Lancet Infect Dis9:281–290. doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(09)70066-0. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
814. Bartlett P, Reingold AL, Graham DR, Dan BB, Selinger DS, Tank GW, Wichterman KA. 1982. Toxic shock syndrome associated with surgical wound infections. JAMA247:1448–1450. doi: 10.1001/jama.1982.03320350052030. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
815. Reingold AL, Hargrett NT, Dan BB, Shands KN, Strickland BY, Broome CV. 1982. Nonmenstrual toxic shock syndrome: a review of 130 cases. Ann Intern Med96:871–874. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-96-6-871. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
816. Barrett SP, Savage MA, Rebec MP, Guyot A, Andrews N, Shrimpton SB. 1999. Antibiotic sensitivity of bacteria associated with community-acquired urinary tract infection in Britain. J Antimicrob Chemother44:359–365. doi: 10.1093/jac/44.3.359. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
817. Demuth PJ, Gerding DN, Crossley K. 1979. Staphylococcus aureus bacteriuria. Arch Intern Med139:78–80. doi: 10.1001/archinte.1979.03630380056019. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
818. Muder RR, Brennen C, Rihs JD, Wagener MM, Obman A, Stout JE, Yu VL. 2006. Isolation of Staphylococcus aureus from the urinary tract: association of isolation with symptomatic urinary tract infection and subsequent staphylococcal bacteremia. Clin Infect Dis42:46–50. doi: 10.1086/498518. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
819. Lee BK, Crossley K, Gerding DN. 1978. The association between Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia and bacteriuria. Am J Med65:303–306. doi: 10.1016/0002-9343(78)90824-0. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
820. Coll PP, Crabtree BF, O'Connor PJ, Klenzak S. 1994. Clinical risk factors for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteriuria in a skilled-care nursing home. Arch Fam Med3:357–360. doi: 10.1001/archfami.3.4.357. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
821. Hooton TM, Bradley SF, Cardenas DD, Colgan R, Geerlings SE, Rice JC, Saint S, Schaeffer AJ, Tambayh PA, Tenke P, Nicolle LE, Infectious Diseases Society of America . 2010. Diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of catheter-associated urinary tract infection in adults: 2009 international clinical practice guidelines from the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis50:625–663. doi: 10.1086/650482. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
822. Stauffer C, Josiah AF, Fortes M, Menaker J, Cole JW. 2013. Lemierre syndrome secondary to community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection associated with cavernous sinus thromboses. J Emerg Med44:e177–e182. doi: 10.1016/j.jemermed.2012.02.075. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
823. Bilal M, Cleveland KO, Gelfand MS. 2009. Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Lemierre syndrome. Am J Med Sci338:326–327. doi: 10.1097/MAJ.0b013e3181a9302b. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
824. Puymirat E, Biais M, Camou F, Lefevre J, Guisset O, Gabinski C. 2008. A Lemierre syndrome variant caused by Staphylococcus aureus. Am J Emerg Med26:380.e5–380.e7. doi: 10.1016/j.ajem.2007.05.020. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
825. Mostafavifar AM, Guilfoose J, Sarwari AR. 2009. Septic pelvic thrombophlebitis due to Staphylococcus aureus. W V Med J105:20–22. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
826. Falagas ME, Vardakas KZ, Athanasiou S. 2007. Intravenous heparin in combination with antibiotics for the treatment of deep vein septic thrombophlebitis: a systematic review. Eur J Pharmacol557:93–98. doi: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2006.11.068. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
827. Chambers HF, Deleo FR. 2009. Waves of resistance: Staphylococcus aureus in the antibiotic era. Nat Rev Microbiol7:629–641. doi: 10.1038/nrmicro2200. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
828. FDA. 2008. Iclaprim for the treatment of complicated skin and skin structure infections. FDA briefing document for Anti-Infective Drugs Advisory Committee Meeting November 20, 2008. FDA, Washington, DC: http://www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/ac/08/briefing/2008-4394b3-01-FDA.pdf. [Google Scholar]
Page 2
Incidence of S. aureus bacteremia per 100,000 person-years in different subpopulations and geographical regions
| Population | Region(s) | Time period (yr) | Incidence per 100,000 person-years for all S. aureus isolates (incidence for MRSA isolates)a | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| All | Denmark | 1957–1990 | 3–20 (NA) | 8 |
| Adults ≥21 yr of age | Denmark | 1981–2000 | 18.2–30.5 (NA) | 49 |
| All | Denmark | 1995–2008 | 22.7 (0.18) | 9 |
| Adults ≥18 yr of age | Iceland | 1995–2008 | 24.5 (0.15) | 25 |
| All | Finland | 1995–2001 | 14 (<0.14) | 27 |
| All | 7 countries | 2000–2008 | 26.1 (1.9) | 7 |
| All | Sweden | 2003–2005 | 33.9 (0) | 55 |
| All | Finland | 2004–2007 | 20 (NA) | 50 |
| All | Netherlands | 2009 | 19.3 (0.18) | 51 |
| All | North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany | 2009 | NA (5.76) | 51 |
| Adults ≥18 yr of age | Quebec | 1991–2005 | 24.1–32.4 (0–7.4) | 10 |
| Adults ≥18 yr of age | Olmsted County, MN, USA | 1998–2005 | 38.2 (12.4) | 11 |
| All | New Zealand | 1998–2005 | 21.5 (0.08) | 26 |
| All | Calgary, Canada | 2000–2006 | 19.7 (2.2) | 12 |
| All | USA | 2004–2005 | NA (31.8) | 14 |
| All, military | USA | 2005–2010 | 4.7 (2) | 29 |
| All | NT, Australia | 2006–2007 | 65 (16) | 30 |
| All | Australia | 2007–2010 | 11.2 (16) | 31 |
| All, CA | Northeast Thailand | 2004–2010 | 2.6 (0.1) | 21 |
| Children ≤20 yr of age | Denmark | 1971–2000 | 4.5–8.4 (NA) | 52 |
| Children ≤18 yr of age | Calgary | 2000–2006 | 6.5 (0.05) | 53 |
| Children <5 yr of age | Kenya | 1998–2002 | 27 (NA) | 22 |
| Children <15 yr of age | Mozambique | 2001–2006 | 48 (4.3) | 23 |
| Children <5 yr of age | Ghana | 2007–2009 | 630 (105) | 54 |
| Children <13 yr of age | South Africa | 2005–2006 | 26 (10) | 24 |
| HIV, ≥16 yr of age | Denmark | 1995–2007 | 494 (4.9) | 35 |
| HIV, adult | USA | 2000–2004 | 1,960 (850) | 36 |
| Hemodialysis | Ireland | 1998–2009 | 17,000 (5,600) | 42 |
| All dialysis | Taiwan | 2003–2008 | 1,809 (1,131) | 41 |
